全球气候治理新进展——区域碳排放权分配研究综述

碳排放权作为稀缺的公共资源,其实质是一种新型发展权。科学合理分配有限的碳排放权对实现《巴黎协定》温控目标至关重要。从原则、方法、尺度与方案等维度对碳排放权分配的文献成果进行了系统梳理与归纳。研究表明,国内外学者大多基于公平性和效率性原则探索碳排放权分配;分配方法分为指标法、博弈论法、数据包络分析法和综合法等,各有利弊和适用条件;分配尺度大多涉及国际和区际两个层面,前者由于各国不同的利益诉求较难形成共识性方案,后者主要关注省际分配,更小尺度的研究相对较少。未来碳排放权分配研究趋向于多原则兼顾、多方法联用,涵盖国际、省际、市际及行业、企业等不同尺度。本研究可为制定科学合理的碳排放权分配方案提供理论依据,为我国更为积极有效地参与全球气候治理提供决策参考。     

The role of trade-offs in biodiversity conservation planning: Linking local management, regional planning and global conservation efforts

Biodiversity conservation planning requires trade-offs, given the realities of limited resources and the competing demands of society. If net benefits for society are important, biodiversity assessment cannot occur without other sectoral factors “on the table”. In trade-offs approaches, the biodiversity value of a given area is expressed in terms of the species or other components of biodiversity that it has that are additional to the components protected elsewhere. That “marginal gain” is called thecomplementarity value of the area. A recent whole-country planning study for Papua New Guinea illustrates the importance of complementarity-based tradeoffs in determining priority areas for biodiversity conservation, and for designing economic instruments such as biodiversity levies and offsets. Two international biodiversity programs provide important new opportunities for biodiversity trade-offs taking complementarity into account. Both the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Critical Ecosystems or “hotspots” programs can benefit from an explicit framework that incorporates tradeoffs, in which a balance is achieved not only by land-use allocation among areas, but also by the crediting of partial protection of biodiversity provided by sympathetic management within areas. For both international programs, our trade-offs framework can provide a natural linkage between local, regional and global planning levels.     

International Regulation on Low-Carbon Shipping for Climate Change Mitigation: Development,Challenges, and Prospects

This article outlines the contribution of international shipping to climate change and examines different approaches to regulate international shipping activities to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It considers challenges such as the allocation of GHG emissions to individual states, the selection of the most effective mitigation and regulatory measures, the potential for a disproportionate burden to fall upon developing states, and the debate about whether the United Nations (UN) or the International Maritime Organization (IMO) is the appropriate international authority to regulate emissions from international shipping.     

生态系统服务供给和需求研究评述及框架体系构建

生态系统服务供给和需求联系着自然生态系统与社会经济系统,对生态系统服务供给和需求的研究有助于加强生态系统管理和实现资源优化配置,从而保障区域生态安全与社会经济可持续发展。本文在系统梳理国内外相关研究的基础上,对生态系统服务供给和需求的概念内涵、评估方法和实践应用等方面进行全面综述。从理论发展的角度看,虽然目前已取得较为丰富的研究成果,但是现有研究仍较为分散,缺乏统一的生态系统服务供需研究框架体系。鉴于此,本文在对生态系统服务供给和需求的研究范畴进行拓展的基础上,按照“理论-方法-实践”相统一的研究脉络,构建了“定性-定位-定量-定策”的生态系统服务供给和需求研究框架体系,最后提出未来研究应围绕“重点关注生态系统服务供给和需求的空间转移规律、加强生态系统服务供给和需求的定量方法研究、深化生态系统服务供给和需求应用管理实践和建立生态系统服务供给和需求应用评价机制”等方面展开,以期促进生态系统服务供给和需求的理论与实践研究。     

环境科学国际合作的理论机制研究

迄今科学界尚无形成系统的国际科学合作理论,也鲜有就环境科学国际合作进行理论研究。首次从全球资源配置的角度来看待环境科学国际合作。通过国际合作,环境科学在内在科学动力和外在社会动力的驱动下,促使全球科学资源和社会资源向有利于环境学科自身发展的方向流动和积聚。其中,配置科学资源遵循"最优要素选择原则",配置社会资源遵循"最小省力原则",两种内在动力和两个调节手段共同构成了环境科学国际合作的理论机制。     

Changing work systems

This paper is concerned with finding practical ways of incorporating human and organizational concerns during the development and use of new information technologies (IT). It is structured in four parts. First, we outline the work of the Institute of Work Psychology at the University of Sheffield. One major interest is with the human and organizational aspects of the new information technologies. We are especially interested in work organization and job design, the allocation of tasks between and among humans and computers, the roles of users, the roles of senior managers, the management of change, and the performance of new investments in information technology (IT). Second, we review the evidence from survey work and from detailed case studies concerning the performance of IT. This reveals that most IT investments do not meet their performance objectives, and that the reasons for this are rarely purely technical in origin. Change is too often technology-led, and too little attention is paid to human and organizational factors. Most companies fail to consider how work should be organized and how jobs should be designed to make the new technologies more effective. Usually, users have no substantial influence on system development. Senior managers are criticized for their lack of understanding and action in these areas. Third, we consider the potential in the United Kingdom for changing work systems incorporating new technology. One way forward is through the development and use of sets of theoretically derived tools that can be used by managers and others. To this end we are working with several collaborators on a portfolio of tools in the following areas: organizational design job design allocation of tasks between and among humans and computers. We then review our approach and offer views of the areas and ways in which this work could develop, including opportunities for international collaboration.     

Matchmaking: An extensible framework for distributed resource management

Federated distributed systems present new challenges to resource management. Conventional resource managers are based on a relatively static resource model and a centralized allocator that assigns resources to customers. Distributed environments, particularly those built to support high-throughput computing (HTC), are often characterized by distributed management and distributed ownership. Distributed management introduces resource heterogeneity: Not only the set of available resources, but even the set of resource types is constantly changing. Distributed ownership introduces policy heterogeneity: Each resource may have its own idiosyncratic allocation policy. To address these problems, we designed and implemented the Matchmaking resource management framework. Customers and resources are all described by classified advertisements (classads) written in a simple but powerful formal language that describes their attributes and allocation policies. A Matchmaker server uses a policy-independent matching operation to discover pairings. It notifies the parties to the match, which use a separate, bilateral claiming protocol to confirm the allocation. The resulting framework is robust, scalable and flexible, and can evolve with changing resources. Matchmaking is the core of the Condor High Throughput Computing System developed at the University of Wisconsin — Madison. Condor is a production-quality system used by scientists and engineers at sites around the world. Condor derives much of its flexibility, robustness and efficiency from the matchmaking architecture. We describe the use of matchmaking in Condor, presenting several examples that illustrate its flexibility and expressiveness. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Agricultural biosecurity

The prevention and control of new pest and disease introductions is an agricultural challenge which is attracting growing public interest. This interest is in part driven by an impression that the threat is increasing, but there has been little analysis of the changing rates of biosecurity threat, and existing evidence is equivocal. Traditional biosecurity systems for animals and plants differ substantially but are beginning to converge. Bio-economic modelling of risk will be a valuable tool in guiding the allocation of limited resources for biosecurity. The future of prevention and management systems will be strongly influenced by new technology and the growing role of the private sector. Overall, today''s biosecurity systems are challenged by changing national priorities regarding trade, by new concerns about environmental effects of biological invasions and by the question ‘who pays?’. Tomorrow''s systems may need to be quite different to be effective. We suggest three changes: an integration of plant and animal biosecurity around a common, proactive, risk-based approach; a greater focus on international cooperation to deal with threats at source; and a commitment to refocus biosecurity on building resilience to invasion into agroecosystems rather than building walls around them.     

Global Climate Change Adaptation Priorities for Biodiversity and Food Security

International policy is placing increasing emphasis on adaptation to climate change, including the allocation of new funds to assist adaptation efforts. Climate change adaptation funding may be most effective where it meets integrated goals, but global geographic priorities based on multiple development and ecological criteria are not well characterized. Here we show that human and natural adaptation needs related to maintaining agricultural productivity and ecosystem integrity intersect in ten major areas globally, providing a coherent set of international priorities for adaptation funding. An additional seven regional areas are identified as worthy of additional study. The priority areas are locations where changes in crop suitability affecting impoverished farmers intersect with changes in ranges of restricted-range species. Agreement among multiple climate models and emissions scenarios suggests that these priorities are robust. Adaptation funding directed to these areas could simultaneously address multiple international policy goals, including poverty reduction, protecting agricultural production and safeguarding ecosystem services.     

Focus: Vaccines: Achieving Global Vaccine Equity: The Case for an International Pandemic Treaty

This paper presents an ethical argument in support of an international Pandemic Treaty. It argues that an international Pandemic Treaty is the best way to mark progress on global vaccine equity and broader issues of global pandemic preparedness and response which came to light during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Section I evaluates principles of multilateral charity, national security, and international diplomacy standardly invoked in debates about global vaccine allocation and argues that these approaches fall short. Section II explicates notions of solidarity, duties to the least well-off, and mutual aid as ethical values more fitting for an era of emerging infectious diseases. Section III relates the discussion to an international Pandemic Treaty and presents legal, pragmatic, and ethical reasons to support it. The paper concludes that in an interconnected world, fair sharing of vaccines between nations is morally mandatory.     

Avoiding Co-Product Allocation in Life-Cycle Assessment

Abstract: In a life‐cycle assessment (LCA) involving only one of several products from the same process, how are the resource consumption and the emissions associated with this process to be partitioned and distributed over these co‐products? This is the central question in co‐product allocation, which has been one of the most controversial issues in the development of the methodology for life‐cycle assessment, as it may significantly influence or even determine the result of the assessments. In this article, it is shown that in prospective life‐cycle assessments, co‐product allocation can always be avoided by system expansion. Through a number of examples, it is demonstrated how system expansion is performed, with special emphasis on issues that earlier have been a focus of the allocation debate, such as joint production (e.g., of chlorine and sodium hydroxide, zinc and heavy metals, and electricity and heat), the handling of “near‐to‐waste” by‐products, processes simultaneously supplying services to multiple product systems, and credits for material recycling and downcycling. It is shown that all the different co‐product situations can be covered by the same theoretical model and the same practical procedure, and that it is also possible to include the traditional co‐product allocation as a special case of the presented procedure. The uncertainty aspects of the presented procedure are discussed. A comparison is made with the procedure of ISO 14041, “Life‐cycle assessment—Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis,” the international standard.     

Effect of paternal age on the birth sex ratio in captive populations of aye‐aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis (Gmelin))

For the management of captive populations of zoo animals, it is important to elucidate factors that affect the offspring birth sex ratio. On the basis of the sex allocation theory, the Trivers–Willard and mate attractive/quality hypotheses predict that maternal and paternal conditions affect offspring birth sex ratios. We examined these predictions for the birth sex ratio of aye‐aye Daubentonia madagascariensis (Gmelin) by analyzing the pedigree information in the International Studbook. We found that the birth sex ratio of the aye‐aye was affected by the paternal age, but not maternal age and other environmental factors (birth year, season, and institution). The younger the sire, the more the offspring sex ratio was biased toward males. These results are useful for the effective population management of captive aye‐aye and illustrated the usefulness of the sex allocation theory in the sex ratio management of zoo animals.     

转基因生物及其产品的风险与管理

转基因生物及其新产品已经进入国际贸易,关于其风险性的争论甚为激烈。上前所知的风险主要是基于理论上的推测。本文介绍了世界各国对转基因生物及其产品的管理模式和一些国际组织的有关活动和规则,并对当前形势下我国应采取的对策提出了建议。     

Wetland classification and inventory: A summary

Regional, national and local wetland classifications have been developed and successfully applied. These have invariably been orientated towards conservation and management goals, and the information used to assess wetland loss or to assign management priorities. Existing national and regional classification systems have not only been useful, but they provide an essential base for developing an international system. At the international level, differences among existing systems in the definition of a wetland and how wetland types are defined assume great importance and need to be resolved. Classification is an essential prerequisite for wetland inventory. A number of international inventories have been undertaken, although these have not generally utilized the available high technology and data storage systems available through remote sensing and geographic information systems. More extensive international inventories will require standardization of techniques for data collection, storage and dissemination. A minimum data set needs to be defined with standards for data accuracy. An international committee under the auspices of an international agency (e.g. IWRB, Ramsar Bureau, IUCN) needs to be established to develop an international classification system and guidelines for carrying out a complete inventory of the world's wetlands.     

Virtual water and water footprints do not provide helpful insight regarding international trade or water scarcity

Many authors have estimated the virtual water content of good and services traded internationally, and many have calculated national water footprints that account for the volumes of virtual water imported and exported. Some authors have suggested that international trade of virtual water has been harmful to selected exporting countries with limited water endowments. Some suggest also that current patterns of international trade should be rearranged to make better use of global water resources. Yet, countries do not actually trade in virtual water. They trade in goods and services for which water is one of many inputs. Wise choices regarding water resources and smart strategies regarding international trade cannot be determined by focusing on water alone. The notions of virtual water and water footprints are not helpful indicators of optimal strategies regarding water resources, particularly when considering issues such as water scarcity or international trade. I describe four perspectives regarding virtual water and water footprints, with the goal of demonstrating the inadequacies of these notions in policy discussions and in efforts to determine the optimal allocation and use of water resources. The four perspectives are: (1) international trade should not be modified or regulated to reflect the virtual water content of traded commodities or water footprints in the countries of trading partners, (2) countries do not save water by engaging in virtual water trade, (3) consumers in one country cannot alleviate water scarcity or improve water quality in other countries, and (4) water footprints are not analogous to carbon or ecological footprints.     

Assimilate allocation by rice and carbon stabilisation in soil: effect of water management and phosphorus fertilisation

Plant and Soil - Water and nutrient management influences the allocation and stabilisation of newly assimilated carbon (C) in paddy soils. This study aimed to determine the belowground allocation...     

International funding for malaria control in relation to populations at risk of stable Plasmodium falciparum transmission

Background

The international financing of malaria control has increased significantly in the last ten years in parallel with calls to halve the malaria burden by the year 2015. The allocation of funds to countries should reflect the size of the populations at risk of infection, disease, and death. To examine this relationship, we compare an audit of international commitments with an objective assessment of national need: the population at risk of stable Plasmodium falciparum malaria transmission in 2007.

Methods and Findings

The national distributions of populations at risk of stable P. falciparum transmission were projected to the year 2007 for each of 87 P. falciparum–endemic countries. Systematic online- and literature-based searches were conducted to audit the international funding commitments made for malaria control by major donors between 2002 and 2007. These figures were used to generate annual malaria funding allocation (in US dollars) per capita population at risk of stable P. falciparum in 2007. Almost US$1 billion are distributed each year to the 1.4 billion people exposed to stable P. falciparum malaria risk. This is less than US$1 per person at risk per year. Forty percent of this total comes from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Substantial regional and national variations in disbursements exist. While the distribution of funds is found to be broadly appropriate, specific high population density countries receive disproportionately less support to scale up malaria control. Additionally, an inadequacy of current financial commitments by the international community was found: under-funding could be from 50% to 450%, depending on which global assessment of the cost required to scale up malaria control is adopted.

Conclusions

Without further increases in funding and appropriate targeting of global malaria control investment it is unlikely that international goals to halve disease burdens by 2015 will be achieved. Moreover, the additional financing requirements to move from malaria control to malaria elimination have not yet been considered by the scientific or international community.     

Risk perception–based post-seismic relief supply allocation in the Longmen Shan fault area: Case study of the 2013 Lushan earthquake

Post-seismic relief supply allocation based on psychological risk perception is an important yet understudied area in emergency management. This article develops a systematic approach to assist in post-seismic relief supply allocation in the Longmen Shan fault (LSF) area where many destructive earthquakes have occurred. First, to analyze the relief supply allocation system, a system dynamics (SD) model is built for the LSF area, which we then verify in a simulation of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. This simulation of an actual earthquake in the area allows for the verification of direct relief supply allocation information. Then, by applying the SD model to the 2013 Lushan earthquake, a decision tree focusing on the selection of appropriate decision-makers is proposed. In summary, the combination of the SD model and the decision tree can then be used to assist the government in carrying out post-seismic relief supply allocation when coping with the actual relief environment. Further, this systematic approach will be improved using other detailed factors from subsequent research on post-seismic relief supply allocation.     

The Application of Biotechnical and Epidemiologic Tools for Pig Health

Health maximization is a farm essential because of its implications for animal well-being and for production. Health care in all livestock species is a dynamic, technologically-limited, and resource-constrained enterprise. As in any health endeavor, challenges abound. Fundamentally, the cornerstones of animal health are good husbandry and good housing. Effective health systems, however, incorporate other management aspects, including biotechnology and epidemiology. The degree to which each affects the incidence and severity of pig disease is not fully appreciated. Shortfalls in management, resource allocation, available tools, and/or understanding are not uncommon. This article reviews the dynamics of pig health emphasizing how technology and management marginally affect the course of disease. Further, management techniques that incorporate technology in disease control, elimination, and eradication are reviewed. Antimicrobials are a key biotechnical tool for maximizing pig health.     

Improving the Applicability of Quantitative Ecological Risk Assessment Tools—Understanding Demand-Side Changes

Quantitative ecological risk assessment (ERA) methods are the tools of choice for many natural resource management agencies and practitioners. However, a number of researchers and practitioners have recently highlighted that the application of quantitative ERA tools has perhaps been somewhat limited and this has stimulated discussion on the limitations of these methods, considered to be supply-side limitations in this analysis. By contrast, it is argued here that the demand for risk assessment tools has also changed substantively and this also acts to limit the use of ERA approaches. In particular, demand has changed through an increasing expectation that quantitative ERA tools will be able to capture ecosystem-scale, and sometimes global-scale interactions to support ecosystem-based management approaches. Similarly, the burgeoning use of market-based policy instruments often underpinned by the allocation of private property rights to an increasing number of ecosystem goods and services has fundamentally changed many natural resource management issues into allocation conflicts between alternate rights-holders. These demand-side changes represent both an opportunity and a challenge for developers of quantitative ERA tools.