Ethnic conflict and the United Nations

The United Nations [UN] is an organization of states. As such it can be expected to represent the interests of its members and uphold a state‐centric view of international politics. For this reason it has been suggested that the organization cannot respond positively to ethnic conflicts within states, or across state borders. However, since such ethnic conflicts can be a threat to international peace and security and to internationally accepted norms of behaviour, the UN cannot always remain indifferent. In fact, it has become involved in ethnic conflicts in several ways. It has dispatched peace‐keeping operations to Cyprus and Lebanon, which try to keep apart the warring factions. The UN has been involved in peace‐making in ethnic conflicts through mediation and Security Council and General Assembly resolutions. It has also engaged in peace‐building, which involves efforts to change both socio‐economic conditions and the mutually hostile attitudes of the parties to violent ethnic conflict. Finally, even though the UN, unlike the League of Nations, has not been prepared to adopt a system of minority‐rights protection, it has been involved in the issue of group rights in at least three areas. These are the Genocide Convention, the work of the Sub‐Commission for the Prevention of Discrimination and the Protection of Minorities, and the issue of the right of national self‐determination.     

United Nations system efforts to support the response to AIDS in China

In the last two years, we have seen a remarkable intensification in the response to AIDS in China. A number of organizations have joined and contributed to the efforts of the Chinese government in responding the AIDS epidemic in China. This article specifically describes the role of the United Nations (UN) in supporting and strengthening those responses. Achievements of the United Nations highlighted in the article include: strengthened leadership and political commitment to respond to AIDS; improved HIV/AIDS surveillance and information; expanded prevention efforts; improved treatment, care and support to people living with HIV and increased resources for AIDS programs. Additional roles of the United Nations system in the near future include strengthening national leadership by supporting the 'three ones', i.e., one national plan on AIDS; one national coordinating authority for AIDS; and one monitoring and evaluation system for AIDS. In addition, the UN system is expected to strengthen alignment and harmonization of activities of all international organizations and improved accountability and oversight. Remaining challenges identified include increasing awareness of AIDS and reducing stigma and discrimination; reducing vulnerability and risk behaviour among specific groups; providing improved treatment, care and support for people living with HIV; promoting stronger engagement by civil society, and; addressing the gender dimensions of AIDS.     

United Nations system efforts to support the response to AIDS in China

In the last two years, we have seen a remarkable intensification in the response to AIDS in China. A number of organizations have joined and contributed to the efforts of the Chinese government in responding the AIDS epidemic in China. This article specifically describes the role of the United Nations in supporting and strengthening those responses. Achievements of the United Nations （UN） highlighted in the article include： strengthened leadership and political commitment to respond to AIDS; improved HIV/AIDS surveillance and information; expanded prevention efforts; improved treatment, care and support to people living with HIV and increased resources for AIDS programs. Additional roles of the United Nations system in the near future include strengthening national leadership by supporting the ‘three ones＇, i. e., one national plan on AIDS; one national coordinating authority for AIDS; and one monitoring and evaluation system for AIDS. In addition, the UN system is expected to strengthen alignment and harmonization of activities of all international organizations and improved accountability and oversight. Remaining challenges identified include increasing awareness of AIDS and reducing stigma and discrimination; reducing vulnerability and risk behaviour among specific groups; providing improved treatment, care and support for people living with HIV; promoting stronger engagement by civil society, and; addressing the gender dimensions of AIDS.     

United Nations system efforts to support the response to AIDS in China

In the last two years, we have seen a remarkable intensification in the response to AIDS in China. A number of organizations have joined and contributed to the efforts of the Chinese government in responding the AIDS epidemic in China. This article specifically describes the role of the United Nations in supporting and strengthening those responses.Achievements of the United Nations (UN) highlighted in the article include: strengthened leadership and political commitment to respond to AIDS; improved HIV/AIDS surveillance and information; expanded prevention efforts; improved treatment, care and support to people living with HIV and increased resources for AIDS programs. Additional roles of e., one national plan on AIDS; one national coordinating authority for AIDS; and one monitoring and evaluation system for AIDS. In addition, the UN system is expected to strengthen alignment and harmonization of activities of all international organizations and improved accountability and oversight. Remaining challenges identified include increasing awareness of AIDS and reducing stigma and discrimination; reducing vulnerability and risk behaviour among specific groups;providing improved treatment, care and support for people living with HIV; promoting stronger engagement by civil society, and; addressing the gender dimensions of AIDS.     

Trends in the perception of ecological problems in the United Nations general debates

To what extent have recent warnings of deepening ecological problems become topics of discussion among international political elites? To address this question a content analysis was undertaken of the speeches comprising the general debates of the 1968, 1972, and 1976 sessions of the UN General Assembly to identify all instances in which ecological issues were mentioned. Despite other indications of an increase in environmental consciousness in the international community, it was found that ecological problems have not been discussed very extensively in the general debates and are far less salient than several other agenda items for which data were also collected. Moreover, the environment peaked as an issue in the 1972 session and declined in prominence in 1976. It was also found that the more developed a country is, the greater the tendency for its delegates to mention environmental problems in their speeches. The lack of prominence of ecological issues is interpreted on the basis of two alternative assumptions: first, that the degree of international awareness of environmental problems is not adequately represented in the general debates and, second, that the findings accurately reflect what is generally a low level of environmental concern in international circles.     

Assessment of environmental effects of deep ocean mining of manganese nodules

Deep ocean mining for manganese nodules is under development by several multinational mining consortia. Initial estimates of probable environmental effects of this mining were made before any actual operations were conducted. Recent pilot mining tests near Hawaii have provided an opportunity to verify and modify the initial estimates. The two principal initial impacts of mining are in the near surface water associated with increased turbidity caused by mining discharge, and in a relatively limited zone at the sea floor associated with collector traverse. Examples are presented of estimates of reduction in primary production in the turbid plume as well as the contrasting effect of increased nutrients. Effects of the mining collector on benthic populations are considered. The limitations of extrapolation of results obtained during pilot mining tests are discussed.     

Guiding the ocean search process: Applying public land experience to the design of leasing and permitting systems for ocean mining and ocean shipwrecks

Abstract

The federal administration of the Mining Law of 1872 and of the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 offers a wealth of experience on the public lands that should be taken into account in managing ocean resources that are similarly under government control. The government has faced a conflict between policy goals because the earlier assurance of development rights stimulates exploration but also makes it more difficult to assure environmental protection. Greater public expenditures for planning and advance information gathering may reduce such conflicts but are limited in their extent by economic considerations. This article analyzes past government attempts to deal with such issues in leasing offshore and onshore oil, and gas, coal, and in the administration of the “hardrock”; claim and patent system. The article suggests alternative ways of sequencing the acquisition of minerals and environmental information in the design of future systems for managing ocean resources.     

Brazil at the third United Nations conference on the law of the sea

Abstract

As Brazil began to emerge as a major power in the years leading up to theThird United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), national ocean policy came to have a quite continuous, distinctive impact on global law of the sea negotiations. Brazil's participation at UNCLOS III offers a particularly good vantage point from which to analyze its more prominent international role as an emerging major power, its related growth as a maritime power, and its significant contribution to international organization.

UNCLOS III, in turn, affects Brazil. The broad implications of the emerging ocean order for both national and international jurisdiction issues, within which Brazilian ocean policy must operate, are analyzed. Brazil's distinctive position as an emerging power between the industrialized countries and the Third World has conditioned its involvement at UNCLOS III. As a developing state, Brazil has favored revision of the traditional order for the purpose of redressing the balance with the developed states. At the same time, as an emerging power, Brazil has an interest in supporting a stable, open international order. In spite of such policy dilemmas, Brazil stands out as one of the few big potential winners in the Third World from both the seabed and non‐seabed portions of the law of the sea negotiations.