Childhood predictors of late‐life diabetes: The case of Mexico

Abstract

We investigated the interplay between characteristics of early childhood circumstances and current socioeconomic conditions and health, focusing specifically on diabetes in mid and late life in Mexico. The analysis used data from the 2001 Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS), a large nationally representative study of Mexicans born before 1950. We analyzed the extent to which childhood conditions, such as exposure to infectious diseases, a poor socioeconomic environment, and parental education, affect the risk of diabetes in later life. Our results indicate that individuals age 50 and older who experienced serious health problems before age 10 have a higher risk of having late‐life diabetes. There is a significant inverse relationship between maternal education and diabetes in late life of adult offspring. Individuals with better educated mothers have a lower risk of being diabetic after age 50. This relationship remains after controlling for other childhood and adult risk factors.     

What Factors Might Have Led to the Emergence of Ebola in West Africa?

An Ebola outbreak of unprecedented scope emerged in West Africa in December 2013 and presently continues unabated in the countries of Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. Ebola is not new to Africa, and outbreaks have been confirmed as far back as 1976. The current West African Ebola outbreak is the largest ever recorded and differs dramatically from prior outbreaks in its duration, number of people affected, and geographic extent. The emergence of this deadly disease in West Africa invites many questions, foremost among these: why now, and why in West Africa? Here, we review the sociological, ecological, and environmental drivers that might have influenced the emergence of Ebola in this region of Africa and its spread throughout the region. Containment of the West African Ebola outbreak is the most pressing, immediate need. A comprehensive assessment of the drivers of Ebola emergence and sustained human-to-human transmission is also needed in order to prepare other countries for importation or emergence of this disease. Such assessment includes identification of country-level protocols and interagency policies for outbreak detection and rapid response, increased understanding of cultural and traditional risk factors within and between nations, delivery of culturally embedded public health education, and regional coordination and collaboration, particularly with governments and health ministries throughout Africa. Public health education is also urgently needed in countries outside of Africa in order to ensure that risk is properly understood and public concerns do not escalate unnecessarily. To prevent future outbreaks, coordinated, multiscale, early warning systems should be developed that make full use of these integrated assessments, partner with local communities in high-risk areas, and provide clearly defined response recommendations specific to the needs of each community.     

Israel: The making of self in the “pioneering” of the nation

The Zionist project was more than a simple “ingathering” of people. All Jews by birth, those who reached Palestine in the early decades of this century were swept into the making of a “new” people with a “new” ethic and a “new” discipline—out of which would emerge the “old‐new” state of Israel. The present article addresses this multiple process with its strains and contradictions, as experiences by the “pioneer” generation and their Palestinian‐born children—the sabra.     

Body odor evoked potentials: a new method to study the chemosensory perception of self and non‐self in humans

A new method will be presented which allows the perception of body odors in humans to be studied objectively. The analysis of body odor‐evoked potentials was used to investigate if and how the human brain is able to differentiate self from non‐self body odor for the first time. Six subjects (three females) participated in two experimental sessions. In each session, two body odors (axillary hair) were presented within an olfactory oddball paradigm. One of the odors was collected from the subject and the other from an odor donor of the same sex. In the first session the subjects' attention was distracted to a secondary task (passive paradigm), in the second session the subjects were asked to actively differentiate the odors (active paradigm). For the EEG recordings the odors were presented within a constantly flowing airstream. The results show that the subjects could hardly differentiate the body odors subjectively. However, it could be demonstrated that the central nervous processing of one's own odor was faster than the processing of the chemosensory non‐self signal. Moreover, in the active paradigm, the potentials appeared to be larger when the subjects perceived their own body odor. The conclusion is reached that the measurement of chemosensory event‐related potentials (CSERP) is the method of choice for the investigation of HLA‐associated body odors. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The origin of the Hominidae: Africa or Asia?

The authors review the evidence for the evolution of the apes and their geographical expansion out of Africa during the Miocene. The ecological background is discussed at each period.From this it is concluded that Dryopithecines in either Africa or Eurasia could have given rise to early Hominidae and that the ecological conditions in both continents were suitable for the appearance of Hominid adaptations.The evidence for early Hominids is at present more impressive in Eurasia than in Africa, though the African find from Fort Ternan, Kenya, is the earliest. On present evidence, neither continent can be precluded as the place of origin of the Hominidae and it appears to be a possibility that Hominidae evolved in both continents with intermittent gene exchange.     

Adhesion of the marine fouling diatom amphora coffeaeformis to non‐solid gel surfaces

Diatom adhesion to different gel surfaces was tested under different shear conditions, using the fouling marine diatom Amphora coffeaeformis as test organism. Four polymers were selected to obtain a test matrix containing gels with different surface charge as well as different surface energies, viz. agarose, alginate, chitosan and chemically modified polyvinylalcohol (PVA‐SbQ). Three experimental systems were applied to obtain different shear rates. Experimental system 1 consisted of gels cast in a cell culturing well plate for comparing initial adhesion as well as long term biofilm development in the absence of shear. In experimental system 2, microscope slide based test surfaces were tested in aquaria under low shear conditions. A rotating annular biofilm reactor was used to obtain high and controlled shear rates. At high shear rates A. coffeaeformis cells adhered better to the charged polymer gels (alginate and chitosan) than to the low charged polymer gels (agarose and PVA‐SbQ). In the system where shear was absent A. coffeaeformis cells developed a biofilm on agarose equivalent to the charged polymer gels, while adhesion to PVA‐SbQ remained low at all shear rates. It is concluded that non‐solid surfaces did not represent an obstacle to settling and growth of this organism. As observed for solid surfaces, low charge density led to reduced attachment, particularly at high shear.     

Assisted reproductive technologies: how to minimize the risks and complications in developing countries?

¹ Correspondence address. E-mail: petra.desutter{at}ugent.be In 2% of assisted reproductive techniques (ART) cycles complicationsoccur. Some are preventable, some are not. In this paper, wewill discuss risks and complications of the standard ‘Western’approach in ART today and point to some measures to be takenwhen implementing ART in developing countries, where resourcesand access to medical care may be limited. Ovarian hyperstimulationsyndrome (OHSS, and its thrombo-embolic complications) is responsiblefor the majority of cycle-related complications, followed bybleeding and infection at oocyte retrieval. ART pregnanciesare complicated by first-trimester bleeding more often thanspontaneous pregnancies, they are more often ectopic, but themajor complication is the very high incidence of multiple pregnancies,when more than one embryo is transferred. OHSS can be preventedby screening patients at risk and by using mild or no stimulation.Simple measures can minimize the risks of bleeding or infection.Obviously single embryo transfer is the only way to avoid multiplepregnancies, which have a highly increased risk for severe maternaland neonatal morbidity and mortality (mainly due to prematurity).Special attention should be given to pre-existing pathologies.Risk minimization of ART in developing countries is not onlymandatory from an economical but also an ethical point of view.     

Sudden Shift or Migratory Drift? FulBe Herd Movements to the Sudano-Guinean Region of West Africa

A significant change in the geography of livestock raising over the past 30 years is the southerly movement of FulBe herds into the humid Sudanian and Guinean savannas of West Africa. The literature suggests that the severe droughts of the early 1970s and mid-1980s were the driving force behind this southern expansion of mobile livestock raising. The conventional view is that drought forced herders to seek greener pastures to the south, an area that zebu cattle have previously avoided because of the presence of tsetse flies, the vector of animal sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis). This “sudden push” hypothesis places Sahelian herds in savanna pastures in a matter of a 1–3 years. This stimulus-response model runs counter to our observations and understanding of the social and ecological processes influencing FulBe herd movements. We challenge the “sudden shift” thesis at the regional scale by arguing that the southerly expansion of FulBe herds has proceeded according to a more complex temporal frame that includes generational, biological, and social historical timeframes and periodicities. We distinguish between short-term shifts (“test movements”) and more permanent shifts (“migration movements”). These mobility patterns are linked to contingent factors such as cattle diseases, drought, and political instability, as well as to more structural and adaptive features such as the establishment of social networks, herding contracts, and cattle cross-breeding. Shifts in livestock ownership and the social differentiation among herders are important variables for understanding changes in herd movements. We conclude that the permanent shift of herds to the humid savannas of West Africa has been preceded by a series of social and agroecological adjustments that operate on decadal and generational time scales.

Second Generation of cycloSal‐Pronucleotides with Esterase‐Cleavable Sites: The ”Lock‐In”‐Concept

A conceptual extension of the cycloSal‐pronucleotide approach is presented. The characteristic feature of the new cycloSal‐derivatives of the anti‐HIV active nucleoside analogue d4T 1 is the incorporation of an enzymatically cleavable carboxylic ester moiety with the intention to trap the triesters inside cells (”lock‐in”‐concept). CycloSal‐triesters bearing different ester groups in the 3‐or 5‐position of the cycloSal‐moiety are described. Surprisingly, only acetyl‐and levulinyl esters are cleaved readily in CEM cell extracts while alkyl esters were found to be stable. Nevertheless, in in‐vitro anti‐HIV assays most of the compounds achieve the thymidine–kinase bypass, thus proving that they act at least as nucleotide delivery systems.     

The ‘other side’ of embedded ness: A case‐study of the interplay of economy and ethnicity

As interest in ethnics and their entrepreneurial activities has grown in recent years, sociologists have come to emphasize the importance of ethnic social structures as the source of actions propelling business growth. In a sign of convergence with the ‘new economic sociology’, recent literature suggests that embeddedness in ethnic networks and communities leads to cooperative, if not conformist, behaviour among ethnic economic actors. This article looks at the ‘other side’ of embeddedness, through a case‐study of African‐American, Caribbean, Korean and white construction contractors in New York City. I argue that, in construction, the embeddedness of economic behaviour in ongoing social relations among a myriad of social actors impedes access to outsiders. Embeddedness contributes to the liabilities of newness that all neophytes encounter, breeding a preference for established players with track records. However, the convergence of economic and ethnic ties has a further baneful effect, since outsiders also fall outside those networks that define the industrial community. While African‐American, Caribbean and Korean outsiders all experience these barriers in similar ways, they differ in the adaptive strategies that they have pursued. African Americans appear to be most disadvantaged, in part because they have been the most exposed to the social closure that results from the mobilization of white ethnics’ social capital. By contrast, Caribbeans and Koreans entered the labour market in societies where racial domination played little or no role in labour market outcomes ‐ a considerable asset since construction skills are transferable from one society to another. The Koreans appear to be the most embedded in ethnic networks, through which they secure jobs and skilled labour, though class factors play a role here as well and even the Koreans must reach out beyond the ethnic community for a clientele. By contrast, ethnic solidarity operates less powerfully among the black contractors, who are tied to a community where intra‐ethnic diversity and internal competition have grown as a result of immigration. In the absence of an ethnic market, black'entrepreneurs turn to the state, whose requirements and dependence on union labour expose black builders to risks from which their Korean counterparts are sheltered.     

Building cross‐cultural coalitions: A case‐study of the Black‐Korean Alliance and the Latino‐Black Roundtable

A case‐study is presented of two Los Angeles‐based cross‐cultural coalitions, the Black‐Korean Alliance [BKA] and the Latino‐Black Roundtable [LBR]. An analysis of the development and eventual dissolution of these two coalitions is presented against the backdrop of the history of relations between the African‐American, Korean‐American and Latino communities of Los Angeles. The central issues leading to the breakup of the two coalitions were: lack of resources, internal power dynamics between coalition partners, nationalistic factions within the broader communities, cross‐cultural dynamics between coalition members, the use of a dialogue model to frame coalition activities, and the analysis of intergroup relations underlying the formation of the coalitions. The applied and theoretical implications of the research are discussed.     

Photoanalogues of the Initiation Substrates of the RNA Polymerase II, 5‐Azido‐2‐Nitrobenzoyl Derivatives of the ATP γ‐Amidophosphate: The Possible Photoinduced Degradation of the Functional Group to an N‐Arylhydroxylamine

Photoanlogues of the initiation substrates of the RNA polymerase II, N₃Ar‐ NH(CH₂)_nNHpppA where N₃Ar is 5‐azido‐2‐nitrobenzoyl group (n = 2 or 4) were synthesized, allowing the preparation of photoreactive oligonucleotides in situ by RNA polymerase II for application as photolabels. Photolysis of p‐nitro‐substituted aromatic azide in aqueous medium was investigated. Using the azoxy‐coupling reaction it was possible to determine whether a nitrene or p‐nitrophenyl hydroxylamine azoxy compound is the trappable intermediate that is generated at ambient temperature in aqueous solution.     

The search for the genetic contribution to autoimmune thyroid disease: the never ending story?

Unlocking the genetic contribution to autoimmune thyroid disease (AITD) will hold one of the keys to understanding disease pathogenesis and developing improved treatments. Significant increases in our understanding of the human genome combined with methodological advances in our ability to search for genetic variation have transformed the way in which we screen the genome for susceptibility loci. From early linkage analysis through to candidate gene studies and most recently genome-wide association screening, each methodology has revealed important insights into not just the heritability of AITD but also the best way of identifying disease causing DNA variants. This review will examine each of the different genome screening techniques, highlighting the successes and failures of each methodology and the lessons learnt which have helped inform the next phase of the disease-gene identification process. We will also look to see where we should be focusing our research efforts in the future.     

Development of health biotechnology in developing countries: Can private-sector players be the prime movers?

Health biotechnology has rapidly become vital in helping healthcare systems meet the needs of the poor in developing countries. This key industry also generates revenue and creates employment opportunities in these countries. To successfully develop biotechnology industries in developing nations, it is critical to understand and improve the system of health innovation, as well as the role of each innovative sector and the linkages between the sectors. Countries' science and technology capacities can be strengthened only if there are non-linear linkages and strong interrelations among players throughout the innovation process; these relationships generate and transfer knowledge related to commercialization of the innovative health products. The private sector is one of the main actors in healthcare innovation, contributing significantly to the development of health biotechnology via knowledge, expertise, resources and relationships to translate basic research and development into new commercial products and innovative processes. The role of the private sector has been increasingly recognized and emphasized by governments, agencies and international organizations. Many partnerships between the public and private sector have been established to leverage the potential of the private sector to produce more affordable healthcare products. Several developing countries that have been actively involved in health biotechnology are becoming the main players in this industry. The aim of this paper is to discuss the role of the private sector in health biotechnology development and to study its impact on health and economic growth through case studies in South Korea, India and Brazil. The paper also discussed the approaches by which the private sector can improve the health and economic status of the poor.     

The filter-feeders signal: response of ostracods to marine environmental changes in the Devonian F–F event

The percentage of filter-feeder species in benthic ostracod assemblages shows evident changes during the Late Devonian Frasnian–Famennian (F–F) transition with two sharp rises in the event stratal interval based on materials collected from the Yangdi section, South China. Neither anoxia nor oligotrophy, eustasy should have been the only primary cause of filter-feeders signal in the F–F event. The sea level fall and rise would create deteriorative environmental conditions such as lower oxygenation and less nutrients, which altogether reduced the diversity and abundance of the benthic ostracods in the F–F transition. The percentage of filter-feeders showed a decrease during the regression, and vice-versa. Therefore, the filter-feeders may be potentially an indicator of sea level changes in the F–F event.