Turning points in the future of deep seabed mining

Abstract

The paper analyzes the prospects for deep seabed mining largely from the legal and political perspectives. It identifies the major players, the forums where the struggles occur, the early assumptions, and then four turning points in the evolution of the current system. The first turning point came when the UN. Convention was adopted, and the United States voted against it. The second turning point came with the deadline for signing the U.N. Convention and qualifying to sponsor a pioneer investor. The third turning point will come when the pioneer investors resolve their overlapping mine site claims and are registered by Prepcom. The fourth turning point will come when Prepcom is able to resolve some of the important outstanding issues. The paper concludes with some recommendations for bringing the institutional machinery and legal framework into such order that deep seabed mining might take place.     

Deep seabed mining: American and Indian perspectives

Kurt Michael Shusterich, Resource Management and the Oceans: The Political Economy of Deep Seabed Mining (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1982), 344 pp.

Manjula R. Shyam, Metals from the Seabed: Prospects for Mining Polymetallic Nodules by India (New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., 1982), 165 pp.     

The law of the sea and the prospects for deep seabed mining: The position of the European community

This article explores the options that the Norwegian government has when it comes to the management of harvesting a new resource (redfeed) in the politically tense area surrounding Svalbard. The article argues that, by preparing a blueprint regime solely for redfeed rather than allowing the resource to be a catalyst for conflict, the impacts of introducing the fishery will be less dramatic.     

Municipal legislation for exploitation of the deep seabed

Abstract

This study traces the evolution of municipal legislation for the deep seabed in the United States of America and the Federal Republic of Germany, and considers what the United States seeks to gain and what it may possibly lose through its recent enactment of the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act. The study concludes that the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral‐Resources Act will ensure for the United States that the minerals of the deep seabed are (if they can be) available when needed, and will strengthen the negotiating position of the United States in UNCLOS III vis‐à‐vis a proposed seabed regime which it perceives as inefficient toward the development of manganese nodules, and unacceptable in the system of governance it promotes. Passage of the Act, it is concluded, will probably not result in a breakdown of the Law of the Sea negotiations. It is thought it will give rise to a legal challenge, the outcome of which is difficult to predict. Finally, it is asserted that political/economic opposition to the Act will be mitigated by the reasonableness of the Act, its provision for delayed implementation, and the desire of many nations to conclude a successful Law of the Sea Treaty.     

Deep seabed mining: A definition of the problem

Abstract

The prospects for deep seabed mining in this century appear remote. The U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea was closed for signature on December 10, 1982. As of that date, 155 nation‐states and four entities had signed, but not the United States and some others. Since that time, the United States has endeavored without much success to develop a “Reciprocating States Agreement”; that would legitimate seabed mining with or without the U.N. Convention. On the other hand, the Preparatory Commission has met six times and is making only modest progress without the participation of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Federal Republic of Germany.     

Canadian perspectives on seabed mining: The case of the production limitation formula

Abstract

This paper will analyze the position Canada took on seabed mining in the Third United Nations Law of the Sea Conference (UNCLOS III). Canada is a major land‐based producer of nickel, an industrialized country with private interests in seabed mining, a NATO member, a major ally of the United States, and a country with extensive ties to less‐developed countries. At UNCLOS III Canada was concerned primarily about the management and control of its coastal resources and the protection of the marine environment. After having secured these interests, Canada emerged as the leader of the land‐based mineral‐producer group advocating production controls on seabed mining. The production limitation formula was one of the major reasons for the United States’ decision not to sign the Law of the Sea Treaty. In so forcefully advocating a production limitation formula, the Canadian delegation relinquished Canada's potential as a middle power to bridge the gap between the Group of 77 and the Western industrialized countries in order to formulate a widely acceptable regime to govern the seabed. A production limitation formula was not in Canada's best interests, given her potential role in seabed mining, and was rejected by officials in the Department of Energy, Mines, and Resources, as well as the Canadian private sector.     

Legal regimes for seabed hard mineral mining: Evolution at the federal and state levels

Abstract

During the last decade U.S. government and industry interest in seabed hard minerals has shifted from areas beyond national jurisdiction to those within national jurisdiction. A variety of factors—technical, economic, political, legal—are behind this trend. This article focuses on the legal aspects of federal and state efforts to encourage and regulate seabed minerals exploration activities, prospective avoidance of conflicts between seabed mining and other ocean uses, federal‐state relations in seabed minerals development, and the special situation of mineral deposits spanning the federal‐state boundary offshore.     

An analytical study of blasting vibration using deep mining and drivage rules

For the study on the propagation–attenuation rule of the blasting vibration wave in the deep mining roadway of Shizishan copper mine, and the analysis of the influences of different maximum explosive charges and different underground systems on the propagation of blasting vibration signals, blasting vibration monitoring of the two different situations has been carried out respectively. Firstly, the Sadov’s Formula has been applied to analyzing the monitoring results of the mining roadway, and thus the value of its excavation blasting vibration attenuation index K and \(\alpha \) and its corresponding regression formula were attained; then, the appropriate regression formula was used to calculate the maximum explosive charge which could ensure the safety of the principal chambers underground the mine. Meanwhile, on the basis of the HHT analysis method, the rule of vibration wave propagation under these two different situations was analyzed. And the results indicated that, whether with an increase in the single charge, or with an increase in the number of the underground systems to cross, blasting seismic wave had a tendency for spreading to the low-frequency band. Through the regression analysis of the Sadov’s Formula and the HHT Method, the results provided a reliable basis for the safe and efficient production of the mine.     

Assessment of environmental effects of deep ocean mining of manganese nodules

Deep ocean mining for manganese nodules is under development by several multinational mining consortia. Initial estimates of probable environmental effects of this mining were made before any actual operations were conducted. Recent pilot mining tests near Hawaii have provided an opportunity to verify and modify the initial estimates. The two principal initial impacts of mining are in the near surface water associated with increased turbidity caused by mining discharge, and in a relatively limited zone at the sea floor associated with collector traverse. Examples are presented of estimates of reduction in primary production in the turbid plume as well as the contrasting effect of increased nutrients. Effects of the mining collector on benthic populations are considered. The limitations of extrapolation of results obtained during pilot mining tests are discussed.     

Commentary on Automatic identification of Chagas disease vectors using data mining and deep learning techniques

We appreciate Gurgel-Goncalves et al. for offering their insights and opinions on our research on the automatic identification of vectors for Chagas disease. Our reply will address the key points raised and provide clarification on the following topics: (1) expert supervision, (2) labeling of the dataset, (3) recognition of the results from benchmark methods, (4) quality of training images, and (5) balancing of data.     

A chronosequence approach for detecting revegetation patterns after Sphagnum-peat mining, northern Japan

The aim of this study is to detect how vegetation development proceeds after Sphagnum-peat mining and how physical and chemical factors in groundwater are related to the revegetation patterns in Sarobetsu mire, Hokkaido, Japan. A total of 189 plots on peat-mining sites were set in a chronosequence and 18 plots were set on unmined control sites. A vegetation survey was conducted, and seasonal changes in groundwater levels and chemistry (pH, electrical conductance, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, anions, and cations) were monitored. Species richness and plot cover tended to increase with increasing age, but were significantly lower in mined sites than in unmined sites dominated by Sphagnum spp. The trends in vegetation change were (1) bare ground, (2) grasslands dominated by grasses and sedges, e.g., Rhyncohospora alba, Phragmites communis, and Moliniopsis japonica and (3) Sphagnum-dominated vegetation. The characteristics of groundwater level during the plant-growth period mostly determined vegetation recovery, i.e., Sphagnum establishment was promoted when groundwater declined greatly in early summer. The patterns of temporal vegetation changes affected by groundwater characteristics were detected by chronological sequence, and hydrological factors in groundwater were more important for revegetation than chemical factors. The original vegetation has not returned after three decades.     

Alternative regimes for harvesting the seabed

Scott Allen and John P. Craven, editors, Alternatives in Deepsea Mining, Proceedings, Law of the Sea Institute Workshop, December 11–14, 1978, Ka'u Hawaii (Honolulu: Law of the Sea Institute, University of Hawaii, 1979), vii + 110 pp., $12.50.

Jack N. Barkenbus, Deep Seabed Resources: Politics and Technology (New York: The Free Press, 1979), xiv + 191 pp., $14.95.

Ross D. Eckert, The Enclosure of Ocean Resources: Economics and the Law of the Sea (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 1979), xiv + 390 pp., $16.95.

I. G. Bulkley, Who Gains From Deep Ocean Mining? Simulating the Impact of Regimes for Regulating Nodule Exploitation, Research Series No. 40 (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1979), vii + 117 pp., $3.50 (paper).

Judith T. Kildow, editor, Deepsea Mining (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1980), vii + 110 pp., $2.50.     

Molecular characterization of microbial communities in deep coal seam groundwater of northern Japan

We investigated microbial methanogenesis and community structure based on 16S rRNA gene sequences from a coal seam aquifer located 843–907 m below ground level in northern Japan; additionally, we studied the δ¹³C and δ²H (δD) of coal‐bed gases and other physicochemical parameters. Although isotopic analysis suggested a thermocatalytic origin for the gases, the microbial activity and community structure strongly implied the existence of methanogenic microbial communities in situ. Methane was generated in the enrichment cultures of the hydrogenotrophic and methylotrophic microorganisms obtained from coal seam groundwater. Methanogen clones dominated the archaeal 16S rRNA gene libraries and were mostly related to the hydrogenotrophic genus Methanoculleus and the methylotrophic genus Methanolobus. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene libraries were dominated by the clones related to the genera Acetobacterium and Syntrophus which have a symbiotic association with methanogens. LIBSHUFF analysis revealed that N₂ gas injected into the coal seam (for enhanced methane production) does not affect the coverage of archaeal and bacterial populations. However, amova analysis does provide evidence for a change in the genetic diversity of archaeal populations that are dominated by methanogens. Therefore, N₂ injection into the coal seam might affect the cycling of matter by methanogens in situ.     

Antimicrobial potential of deep surface sediment associated bacteria from the Sea of Japan

The aim of this study was to survey microorganisms from the deep surface sediment samples collected from the Sea of Japan and to screen them for antimicrobial and antagonistic effects. Phylogenetic analysis revealed most isolates sharing 98–100 % sequence similarity to recognized species, including those recovered previously from marine or saline environments. Alteromonas, Halomonas, Marinobacter, Pseudoalteromonas, Salinicola, within the class Gammaproteobacteria, Sulfitobacter (Alphaproteobacteria), Bacillus, Paenibacillus and Paenisporosarcina (Firmicutes), Nocardiopsis and Streptomyces (Actinobacteria) occurred abundantly in all sediment samples. Antimicrobial screening revealed twenty three strains (13 %) capable to inhibit growth of one to eight test cultures and deep sediment isolates. Based on phylogenetic analysis mostly active strains belonged to the genera Bacillus, Brevibacillus, Nocardiopsis, Paenibacillus and Streptomyces. Antimicrobial substances (1–3) were isolated from strain Paenibacillus sp. Sl 79w showing a high inhibitory activity. On the basis of combined spectral analyses (IR, UV, ¹H and ¹³C NMR) the compounds 1, 2 and 3 with [M + H]⁺ at 409.1 and 409.2 m/z, and with [M + Na]⁺ at 822.5 m/z were found to have a carbon skeleton of isocoumarin and peptide antibiotics, respectively. Our findings demonstrated that the deep surface sediments of the Sea of Japan represent an untapped source of diverse microorganisms capable of antimicrobial metabolite production.     

In deep: the boom and bust of the coal mining industry through the eyes of Black Appalachians

This review discusses Gone Home by Karida Brown as a project about the boom and bust of the coal mining through the eyes of Black Appalachians. Attention is paid to how the boundary-making projects of Blacks in Harlan County, Kentucky were ultimately made against the backdrop of seismic structural changes that built and then ruined the coal industry. This boom–bust cycle is told through the eyes of second-generation coal miners – that is, the children of the coal miners who migrated from the Birmingham, Alabama region. These children experience their childhood in eastern Kentucky but then are shipped off to the North, West, and East because by the time they come of age, the coal industry is kneeling to mechanization technologies. Brown presents a compelling narrative that introduces a “new” story of the Deep South and the African American Great Migration, one well worth reading.