Civil Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection With the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances: Chinese Perspective

Abstract

The International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (the HNS Convention) has not entered into force. In China, a two-tier compensation regime has been established for vessel-source oil pollution damage, but this regime does not address damage in connection with the carriage of HNS by sea. This article examines the Chinese law approach to civil liability and compensation for damage in this respect, and discusses whether there is an adequate framework in place to address issues that may arise.     

Prevention of Vessel-Source Marine Pollution: A Note on the Challenges and Prospects for Chinese Practice Under International Law

This article examines China's domestic legal regime for the prevention of vessel source pollution. It pays special attention to the recently adopted Regulation on Prevention and Control of Marine Pollution from Vessels. Potential challenges and emerging issues that China has to confront are addressed, including: application of the legislation to disputed sea areas between China and its neighbors, freedom of navigation in the exclusive economic zone, reduction of emission from ships, and prevention of invasive species from ballast water.     

China's 2012 Regime for Compensation for Vessel Source Oil Pollution: A Comparative Study

The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund is a successful international scheme providing supplementary compensation for vessel source oil pollution damage. Some domestic schemes such as the Ship-Source Oil Pollution Fund in Canada and the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund in the United States have also been successful. China established its Vessel-Source Oil Pollution Compensation Fund in July 2012. This article examines the international and domestic schemes that provide supplementary compensation for vessel source oil pollution and makes some suggestions for amendment of the newly established Chinese national compensation fund.     

Protection of the antarctic ecosystem: A study in international environmental law

Abstract

The Antarctic region constitutes a fragile eco‐system closely related to the unique features of the physical environment of that continent. The Antarctic Ocean is central to the region's living systems, with krill as the ecological basis of life in the ocean and on land. So far, man's impact upon the Antarctic environment has been negligible, but there is concern that overharvesting of krill and possible marine pollution resulting from any future offshore oil exploration may undermine the krill basis of the Antarctic ecosystem. The legal status of Antarctica is largely determined by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, and especially by the inner circle of the currently fourteen “consultative”; status signatories. These states have given high priority to ecological considerations by enacting a series of environmental and conservationist regulations, as well as two conventions, one protecting the Antarctic seals and the other marine living resources in general. Environmental regulations will form an important part of the legal regime for the exploration and exploitation of the Antarctic mineral resources, primarily oil and gas. The Antarctic Treaty framework does not legally bind nonsignatory states, but under general international law all states are bound to refrain from inflicting damage upon the planet's environment. Also, some marine pollution conventions apply to the Antarctic waters, and the 1982 U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea comprehensively covers the protection and preservation of the marine environment of all oceans and seas. The preservation of the Antarctic environment will remain a high priority irrespective of what legal regime will govern Antarctica after 1991 when the Antarctic Treaty may, and most probably will, be subject to review.     

Civil liability for oil‐pollution damage on the Norwegian continental shelf

Abstract

This paper will survey the legal framework which controls civil liability for oil‐pollution damage emanating from the extraction and transportation of petroleum on the North Sea. This framework largely comprises two Intergovernmental Maritime Consulative Organization conventions dealing with vessel‐source pollution damage and a newly created convention among the northwest European states concerning pollution damage caused by offshore drilling operations. The major purpose of this paper is to familiarize the reader with these conventions as they apply to a party seeking recovery under Norwegian law. In addition, preceding domestic legislation and case‐law doctrines which may still be relevant will be discussed.     

草原生态系统损害鉴定评估体系及管理建议

如何科学合理的确定生态系统是否受到损害、损害到什么程度、损害赔偿如何估算等问题已成为环境管理、环境司法工作所面临的紧迫的现实问题。以生态学、复合生态系统生态学、可持续发展的理论为指导,基于损害基线判定损害事件发生,借此鉴定草原生态系统损害状态及鉴定等级,并从受损生态系统的功能与结构角度提出草原生态环境损害鉴定评估体系,开展对草原生态系统损害的程度评估;最后针对草原生态系统的损害赔偿价值提出量化评估的方法,借此推动生态环境损害鉴定评估法的制定和完善生态环境损害鉴定评估技术体系两个方面提出管理建议。     

农田氮素非点源污染控制的生态补偿标准——以江苏省宜兴市为例

农田氮素流失引起的非点源污染已成为国内外农田生态环境资源可持续利用及农业可持续发展的瓶颈,对其进行有效控制愈显迫切.对非点源污染的控制不能简单地照搬点源污染的方法,须针对非点源污染本身具有的强烈外部性及复杂、广泛、不易监测等特征,探究与非点源污染特征规律相对应的对策.生态补偿作为应对全球生态危机和环境污染的一种公共政策工具,对于内化外部效应具有良好的效果.以农户减少一定程度的氮肥施用量获得政府补偿为切入点,论证了农户减少氮肥用量到最佳生态经济施氮量是获得补偿的依据;以宜兴市为实证对象,运用意愿调查评估法和成本-收益法相结合的方式测算了农户参与农田氮素非点源污染控制的生态补偿标准.研究表明:(1)宜兴市主要粮食生产的最佳生态经济施氮量为375.6 kg/hm2,农户参与农田氮素非点源污染控制的补偿额度理论值为620.0-7098.0元/hm2;(2)68.3％的受访农户愿意接受补偿而减少氮肥用量,受偿意愿与种田经验、受教育程度等因素正相关;(3)愿意接受补偿的农民中50.7％选择氮肥量减少到最佳生态经济施氮量,农田氮素非点源污染控制的补偿标准为620.0元/hm2.     

Local adaptation of annual weed populations to habitats differing in disturbance regime

Plants have evolved several strategies to cope with disturbance, and one strategy is tolerance. In tolerance, plants store resources (meristems, carbohydrates) so that they can resprout after disturbance and thereby compensate to some degree for losses. Because tolerance is costly (it occurs at the expense of current growth), we can expect adaptation to the local disturbance regime. In this study, we determined whether populations of a common European annual weed, Euphorbia peplus, are adapted to the local disturbance regime. We hypothesized that the tolerance and hence compensation for losses in seed and biomass production after experimental damage are greater in plants from more severely disturbed than from less severely disturbed populations. We also hypothesized that transgenerational effects can alter adaptation. We found that compensation for biomass loss to damage was greater for plants from more severely disturbed habitats than for plants from less severely disturbed habitats. This, however, was not at the expense of growth before damage because plants from both disturbance regimes did not show differences when not damaged. Transgenerational effects played a positive role in adaptation to disturbance during germination and maturity. We conclude that local adaptation together with transgenerational effects have evolved in more severely disturbed populations but not in less severely disturbed populations of E. peplus.     

The Potential Marine Pollution Threat from Oil and Gas Development Activities in the Disputed South China Sea/Spratly Area: A Role that Taiwan Can Play

This article examines the potential threat of marine pollution caused by offshore oil and gas development activities in the disputed areas of the South China Sea (SCS) and the Spratly Islands. After addressing the potential threat of marine pollution, it discusses the legal obligations and political commitment of the SCS littoral states regarding the protection of the marine environment in the area. The role that Taiwan can play in these matters is also examined.     

和谐医患关系目标下的医疗损害补偿制度研究

目前,我国主要适用《中华人民共和国侵权责任法》处理医疗损害,对因医务人员过失导致的医疗损害进行赔偿,这一模式为解决医患纠纷作出了巨大贡献,但其中也存在着当事医师赔偿比例不清、对因无过错医疗行为导致的医疗损害救济不够、赔偿周期漫长等问题。主要针对目前医疗损害赔偿模式的困境与问题,构建适合我国国情的医疗损害补偿制度,并对医疗损害补偿制度中的资金来源与使用、赔偿标准等关键问题进行探讨。

     

The Use of LNG as a Marine Fuel: The International Regulatory Framework

While shipping is a carbon efficient transport mode, given that roughly 90% of the world trade is carried by ships, the negative impact of shipping on human health and the natural environment is significant. One of the attempts being made by the shipping industry to reduce its environmental impact is to use liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a marine fuel. This article examines the regulatory legal regime in relation to the use of LNG as marine fuel and highlights the areas where further development is necessary.     

围填海区渔业生态损害的补偿标准定量研究——以舟山近岸海域为例

围绕海洋工程项目建设中渔业资源损害补偿这一关键要素至今尚缺乏一致认可的统一标准这一核心问题,根据2015年11月、2016年5月在舟山近岸海域(29°20′—31°00′N、121°40′—123°00′E)开展80个站位的渔业资源拖网调查数据,结合历史资料和渔民访谈交流等,分别以是否为生产渔场、是否为鱼卵仔稚鱼聚集区以及渔业资源量数量分布状况,赋予不同海域的权重系数,将直接经济损害补偿与渔业生态服务价值补偿结合起来,提出渔业生态损害补偿标准核算思路,建立了围填海工程项目渔业生态损害的补偿补偿模型,并计算得出不同县(区)、乡镇的渔业生态损害补偿金标准。可在舟山近岸不同海域的渔业生态损害补偿金收缴实践中推广应用,也为建立我国海洋生态损害补偿机制提供技术支撑。     

Marine scientific research and marine pollution in China

Abstract

In recent years coastal states everywhere in the world have paid attention to the preservation of the marine environment and the conduct of marine scientific research. The scope and nature of China's marine scientific research have been expanded and diversified since the late 1970s because of the growing importance of the ocean for the “Four Modernization “ programs. More and more programs have been designed and executed to find fishing resources, search for offshore oil and gas, promote maritime defense, help alleviate the marine pollution problems, reinforce China's territorial claim in the South China Sea, participate in Antarctic scientific research, and to better understand the whole marine environment. This article first examines China's attitude toward the legal regimes of marine pollution and marine scientific research. It depicts China's marine scientific research activities from the early 1950s. Finally it suggests that more scientific research programs will be designed in support of China's ocean development plans in the future.     

Creeping jurisdiction beyond 200 miles in the light of the 1982 law of the sea convention and state practice

Abstract

This article attempts a complex examination of problems pertaining to actual and potential extensions of coastal state rights and jurisdiction beyond the limit of 200 miles in the light of 1982 Law of the Sea Convention and state practice. Extension of the continental shelf regime, in the context of its outer limit beyond 200 miles, the entitlement of rocks to this limit, and the scope of coastal state rights and duties, is analyzed first. It is followed by discussion of the extension of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) or fishery zone regime, which involves extension of certain coastal state fishery rights on the one hand, and the right of intervention in cases of maritime casualties and the liability regime for oil pollution damage on the other hand. Attention is also paid to presently speculative extensions of both regimes as a consequence of sea level rise. The author concludes that, if a continuing nontreaty situation deprives recourse to compulsory dispute settlement, the worst‐case scenario of spatial extension of the entire EEZ regime to the outer edge of the continental margin could not with certainty be excluded.     

Marine pollution from land‐based sources: Current problems and prospects

Abstract

Appropriate legal measures for the prevention and abatement of land‐based pollution have only recently been undertaken despite its significant share (approximately 80 percent) in marine pollution. This article surveys solutions contained in regional conventions concluded in that field, and also indicates rules and principles to serve as the basis for states’ cooperation. Special attention has been given to problems which still give rise to controversies: pollution of the sea through international watercourses, control systems consisting of environmental impact assessments, and the obligation of prior notification and consultation, as well as state responsibility for marine pollution damage. The analysis carried out in this article supports the final conclusion that it would be desirable to consider developing guidelines for the drafting of treaties on the protection of the marine environment against pollution from land‐based sources.     

海洋工程生态损害评估与补偿——以厦门杏林跨海大桥为例

随着海岸带地区经济的发展、人口的增加和城市化程度的加快,日益增多的各类海洋工程已经或者正在损害海洋与海岸带生态系统为人类提供各种产品和服务的能力,严重威胁到人类健康和海洋经济的可持续发展。实施海洋生态损害补偿制度,即让生态损害责任方承担生态损害的全部成本,是解决海洋生态损害问题的有效途径之一。建立了海洋工程生态损害评估框架和生态损害补偿标准估算模型,并成功运用于厦门杏林跨海大桥的案例研究。结果表明,在2%的贴现率下,杏林大桥生态补偿标准为1739万元,远高于政府实际征收的补偿金额600万元。该评估框架信息需求量小,成本低且简单易行,在小规模海洋工程的生态损害评估与补偿方面有良好的应用前景。     

Oil removal from used sorbents using a biosurfactant

Oil spills impose serious damage on the environment. Mechanical recovery by the help of oil sorbents is one of the most important countermeasures in oil spill response. Most sorbents, however, end up in landfills or in incineration after a single use. These options either produce another source of pollution or increase the oil recovery cost. In this study a biosurfactant was used to clean used oil sorbents. This use of biosurfactants is new. Washing parameters tested included sorbent type, washing time, surfactant dosage and temperature. It was found that with biosurfactant washing more than 95% removal of the oil from sorbents was achieved, depending on the washing conditions. Biosurfactants were found to have considerable potential for recycling the used sorbents.     

中国矿产资源开发区生态补偿研究进展

矿产资源开发区生态补偿是调整利益相关者因资源开采引发的环境利益和经济利益分配不均,并对矿产资源开发造成的外部成本内部化的制度安排。从矿产资源开发区生态补偿的理论研究、生态补偿机制、生态补偿标准,以及多学科交叉研究四方面对我国生态补偿相关研究进行了总结分析。从中发现:我国矿产资源开发区生态补偿仍以政府主导;矿产资源开发区生态补偿机制有待完善,在补偿主体、客体、途径、期限、内容等研究结论仍不明晰;现有补偿主要以经济补偿为主,补偿模式单一、补偿资金不足;生态补偿标准评估方法各有侧重点,尚未形成系统完善的矿产资源开发区生态补偿标准评估方法。今后应加强以下研究:强化生态补偿的理论研究,从市场产权交易和政府监督出发,构建科学生态补偿机制,结合区域自然、社会、经济特征,确定生态补偿标准;科学合理评估矿产资源开发造成的生态服务价值损益;结合生态补偿理论研究,采用多学科交叉分析,根据矿产资源开发阶段,构建矿产资源开发区生态补偿框架体系,明确生态补偿主客体、标准、方式、期限等;提炼矿产资源开发区生态补偿类型与模式,并构建矿产资源开发区生态补偿长效机制。     

基于生境等价分析法的胶州湾围填海造地生态损害评估

围填海造地的生态损害是指围填海造地所引致的海洋生态系统服务功能的下降,包括生物资源消失、生态调节功能减弱以及生物栖息地破坏等。针对胶州湾围填海造地规模及其生态影响,使用生境等价分析法,对围填海造地的资源和生态服务功能的受损程度和补偿规模进行了评估。结果表明,1988-2005年胶州湾填海造地的资源生态受损程度为41.33%,以退田还海作为修复工程,修复期为8a,在5%的折现率水平下,修复工程的规模应为22.47 km²,才能使被填海域的生态服务功能恢复到初始水平。这一结论可作为地方政府对胶州湾围填海造地实施生态修复建设和生态补偿管理的技术依据。     

Hydrocarbon pollution of the sea and its influence on marine organisms

Summary 1. Marine oil pollution is becoming a major problem. The amount of pollution by oil and oil products may be expected to increase in the near future due to (a) the increase in number of sea going ships, including the tanker fleet, (b) the use of shelf zones for oil drilling, (c) poor international legislative measures to prevent oil pollution in the open seas.2. Hydrocarbon products, especially oils, exert detrimental effects on the hyponeuston (organismic community near the water surface), eggs and larvae of fishes, e. g., the plaice(Rhombus maeoticus) phyto- and zooplankton, nectonic organisms, including adult fishes (via direct damage or by causing them to emigrate), and a variety of benthic organisms.3. In general, eggs and larval stages of marine organisms seem to be more sensitive than their adult counterparts.4. There is great need for long-term studies employing sublethal criteria.5. Marine birds are killed by the thousand and hundred-thousands per year due to oil pollution.6. Hydrocarbon pollution represents a new, unfavorable, ecological factor which may lead to permanent changes in the biological structure of the oceans and coastal waters, and which finally may reduce their productivity.

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Verunreinigung des Meeres durch Kohlenwasserstoffe und ihr Einfluß auf marine Organismen

Kurzfassung Hinsichtlich der Verunreinigung des Meeres durch Kohlenwasserstoffe stellt die Verschmutzung durch Öl und Ölprodukte ein höchst aktuelles Problem dar. Von den ins Meer entlassenen Ölprodukten werden in erster Linie die Oberflächenschichten und ihre Lebensgemeinschaften (Hyponeuston), aber auch die in tieferen Zonen lebenden Organismen betroffen, vor allem das Phyto- und Zooplankton. Versuche an 20 verschiedenen Planktonalgen zeigten, daß Ölprodukte stark toxisch wirken und diese töten oder ihre Vermehrung hemmen. Frei bewegliche Tiere, wie Fische, vermögen günstigenfalls aus ölverschmutzten Meeresgebieten abzuwandern. Organismen des Benthos werden durch Ölverschmutzungen ebenfalls, doch offensichtlich nicht in so starkem Maße, geschädigt. Es wird darauf hingewiesen, daß noch unzureichende Kenntnisse über die Folgen einer kurz- bzw. langfristigen Einwirkung von Ölprodukten auf Meeresorganismen bestehen.