Physical growth and development, neurological maturation and behavioral functioning in two Ecuadorian Andean communities in which goiter is endemic. I. Outline of the problem of endemic goiter and cretinism. Physical growth and neurological maturation in the adult population of La Esperanza

Animal experiments indicate that chronic dietary iodine deficiency can have a marked effect on neurological maturation and the consequent behavioral capacities of the individuals so affected. Goiter, enlargement of the thyroid gland, is hyperendemic throughout the Andean region of Ecuador and is associated with an insufficient dietary intake of iodine. In these populations there is also a strikingly high prevalence of gross mental and physical developmental retardation that has been classified under the rubric of “endemic cretinism.” Anthropometric measurements and Bender Gestalt productions were collected from 44 deaf-mute “cretin” and 344 “normal” adult individuals in the parroquia of La Esperanza. The anthropometric data were generally comparable to that of other Ecuadorian Andean populations which have been studied. The deaf-mute “cretin” group showed retardation in physical growth and marked retardation in visual motor maturation compared to the “normal” population. Seventeen percent of the “normal” population showed clear signs of neurological deficit in visual motor perception. The data suggest that in addition to the large number of grossly retarded “cretins” in these populations, many of the “normal” individuals show some degree of neurological deficit, thus forming a continuum from frankly retarded, through moderately and slightly affected, to normal individuals. The socio-cultural adaptations to the presence of a large number of retarded individuals in the community are discussed.     

Short-term signals of climate change along an altitudinal gradient in the South Alps

Short-term changes in plant species number, frequency and composition were studied along an altitudinal gradient crossing four summits from the treeline ecotone to the subnival zone in the South Alps (Dolomites, Italy). Large-scale (summit areas) and small-scale patterns (16 plots of 1 m2/summit) were monitored. After 5 years, a re-visitation of the summit areas revealed a considerable increase of species richness at the upper alpine and subnival zone (10% and 9%, respectively) and relatively modest increases at the lower alpine zone and the treeline ecotone (3% and 1%, respectively). At the small scale, the results were partly different, with species richness decreasing at the lower summits and increasing at the higher summits. The changes can most likely be attributed to climate warming effects and to competitive interactions. The main newcomers at the lower three summits were species from the treeline and the lower altitudinal zones. Only at the highest summit, the newcomers came from the alpine species pool. At the treeline ecotone, the abundance of Pinus cembra, of dwarf shrubs and clonal graminoid species increased. Here, displacements of alpine species may be predicted for the near future. At the higher summits, expansions of the established alpine species and further invasions of species from lower altitudes are forecasted.     

Studies of endemic cretinism in Papua New Guinea: digital and palmar dermatoglyphic patterns

We have tested the hypothesis that the abnormal development of the central nervous system seen in endemic cretinism might be accompanied by concurrent abnormal dermatoglyphic patterns. We compared digital and palmar dermatoglyphics of normal individuals and endemic cretins inhabiting the Huon Peninsula of Papua New Guinea. The population sampled from the Irumu River Valley included 118 males and 114 females with 22 male cretins and 23 female cretins. The population sampled from the Wantoat River Valley included 72 males and 38 females with 12 male cretins. No pathognomonic patterns were found that could identify the endemic cretin subpopulation. However, the occurrence of a number of differences between controls and cretins suggests that subtle changes in dermatoglyphic patterns accompany the anomalous development of the CNS secondary to maternal iodine deficiency. We discuss the significance of these findings and compare the dermatoglyphic patterns of normal Irumu and Wantoat natives and 21 other populations of Papua New Guinea.     

Endemic goiter, thiocyanate overload, and selenium status in school-age children

Iodine deficiency (ID) and related disorders are still major, yet unresolved health concerns. Recently, in a systematic survey of schoolage children (SAC), we reported severe to moderate ID, in Ankara and three cities from Black Sea region of Turkey. The current study attempted to evaluate selenium (Se) status, thiocyanate (SCN⁻) overload, and their possible contribution to the goiter endemics and thyroid hormone profile observed in these cities. Thyroid ultrasonography was performed and serum Se, SCN⁻, thyroid hormones, sensitive TSH (sTSH) levels, and urinary iodine concentrations (UICs) were determined from 251 SAC (9–11 yr old). Thyroid volumes (TVs) exceeding recommended upper normal limits and median UIC indicated goitre endemics and moderate to severe ID in the areas studied. Mean serum SCN⁻ concentrations were found to be greater than the controls from the literature. The UIC/SCN⁻ ratio was found to be lowest in Bayburt and Trabzon denoting that SCN⁻ overload may contribute to the goiter endemics. Serum Se concentrations represent a marginal deficiency in the four areas studied. No significant correlations between serum Se concentrations and the other parameters studied (i.e., TV, SCN⁻, thyroid hormones, sTSH, UIC) was detected. In conclusion, this study showed that selenium is also marginally deficient in the iodine-deficient endemic areas studied, but this has little or no impact on the thyroid hormone profile and the goiter endemics. SCN⁻ overload may contribute to the endemics, especially for the areas where iodine is severely deficient. An effective iodine supplementation program will not only resolve the goiter endemics but also the consequence of SCN⁻ overload as well in the endemic goiter areas studied.     

Reproductive output,costs of reproduction,and ecology of the smooth snake,Coronella austriaca,in the eastern Italian Alps

A 5-year mark-recapture study of smooth snakes (Coronella austriaca) in the Carnic Alps (1100 m above sea level) of north-eastern Italy provided extensive information on the biology and life-history of these small viviparous snakes. Offspring were relatively large (mean=15 cm total length, 2.9 g) when they were born in late summer, and females grew to maturity (44 cm, 50 g) in approximately 4 years. Larger neonates retained their size advantage for at least 12 months, but did not have a higher probability of survival. Although sexual size dimorphism (at birth and at mean adult body sizes) was minor, the sexes differed significantly in several respects. Females grew faster than males during juvenile life, and adult females diverged in dietary habits from the rest of the population. Whereas juveniles (of both sexes) and adult males fed primarily on lizards, larger females shifted to feeding less frequently, but taking larger prey (mammals and snakes). Reproductive output increased strongly with maternal body size: larger females reproduced more frequently, produced larger litters of larger neonates, had higher relative clutch masses (RCMs), and had a lower proportion of stillborn off-spring. Most females produced a litter every 2nd or 3rd year. We did not detect significant year-to-year variation in reproductive traits over the 5 years of our study. Females were consistent from one litter to the next in several traits (e.g., litter sizes, offspring sizes and shapes, proportions of stillborn neonates, RCMs), but this consistency was due to differences in body size among females rather than to size-independent maternal effects. Overall litter sex ratios averaged 50/50, but sex ratios tended to be more male-biased in litters that were unusually large relative to maternal body size, and in litters containing a high proportion of stillborn offspring. Costs of reproduction appear to be high in this population, in terms of both energy allocation and risk. Reproduction reduced growth rates, and females that recovered condition more quickly in the year after reproduction were able to reproduce again after a briefer delay. Mortality was highest in reproducing females with high RCMs, and in females that were very emaciated after parturition. The marked increase in reproductive output with increasing maternal body size in C. austriaca may reflect a reduction in costs as females grow larger, and the dietary shift to larger prey may enhance the rate that females can accumulate energy for reproduction.     

Comparative analysis of the floristic richness of alpine communities in the Caucasus and the Central Alps

Abstract. Species richness of selected alpine plant communities in the Teberda Biosphere Reserve (Northwestern Caucasus) and the Davos area (Central Alps) was compared in series of plots from 0.0025 to 100 m². Communities developing under similar ecological conditions and with similar syntaxonomic positions were compared in order to estimate the role of recent environment versus regional historical factors in determining plant community structure and diversity. The floristic richness of the Caucasian and Alpic fens was very similar. The Grasslands and Meadows were quite similar as to floristic richness for plots > 25 cm × 25 cm, but the Caucasian communities had fewer species in smaller plots. The Lichen heath at Teberda was richer than the Caricetum curvulae cetrarietosum for all plot sizes, except the two smallest ones. On the other hand, the plots of the Salix Snowbed community were richer in species than the Caucasian snowbeds for all plot sizes. The Rhododendron Shrubland plots were very similar as to floristic richness in larger plots (4 — 100 m²). Generally, most Alpic communities near Davos were richer in species at small plot sizes than the corresponding communities from Teberda. Caucasian communities were floristically less similar to each other — and thus more discrete — than the Alpic ones. The possible role of different factors controlling floristic richness of the communities is discussed. Our results suggest that recent ecological conditions have a big influence on local floristic diversity and may lead to high similarities between ecologically similar communities from different regions. In addition, the general floristic richness of a regions as well as island effects should be taken into account.     

亚洲中部荒漠区的植物特有属

系统地列出了亚洲中部荒漠区的13个植物特有属或近特有属——绵刺属、沙冬青属、四合木属、百花篙属、革苞菊属、河西菊属、喀什菊属、紊篙属、连蕊芥属、钝基草属、合头黎属、戈壁黎属、霸王属。这些属都是单种属或双种属,分类上属于孤立的类群;演化系统上是既起源古老而又进化的类群;生态上都是早生植物,绝大多数是荒漠种,其生活型灌木和半灌木占优势;地理分布上阿拉善荒漠区是其特有属的分布中心;起源上是多元的。     

Plant invasions in treeless vegetation of the Australian Alps

A total of 128 invasive plant species have been recorded in treeless vegetation in the Australian Alps. Most of these are forbs and most are uncommon. Cover of invasive species is generally minimal unless there has been gross disturbance to natural vegetation and soils. Although there is a significantly positive correlation between invasive and native species diversity, suggesting that conditions that allow numerous native species to co-exist also permit more plant invasions, altitude is the most important determinant of invasive species diversity. Only 22 of the 128 species have been recorded above 1800 m. Some plant communities (e.g. those with high pH or relatively nutrient-rich soils), however, seem to be vulnerable to invasions regardless of altitude. Most invasive species appear to have been introduced unintentionally (e.g. as seed attached to vehicles, animals and humans) but a few were introduced to assist with revegetation of disturbed soils and for amenity plantings in ski resorts, and have subsequently established in native vegetation. Treeless communities in the Australian Alps are likely to face increasing pressure from invasive species as a result of global warming and continued introduction of non-native plants to ski resort gardens. Whilst it may be difficult to prevent invasive species of low elevations migrating to higher elevations as temperatures rise, the risk of invasion from garden plants could be minimised through regulation. Non-native plants in ski resort gardens pose a far greater risk than most invasive species currently present in the Alps because they have been chosen for their capacity to survive at high altitudes.     

Using Endemic Plant Species to Establish Critical Habitats in the Sierra de La Laguna Biosphere Reserve, Baja California Sur, Mexico

The Sierra de La Laguna, in the southern part of the state of Baja California Sur, Mexico, was decreed a biosphere reserve in 1994. It harbors relict plant communities with a high level of endemism. Floristic research has established that the two main communities, the oak–pine woodland (OPW) and the dry tropical forest (TDF), harbor 43 and 33 endemic species, respectively. We segregate the reserve surface into seven major habitats and each endemic species were assigned a hierarchic value into an abundance-distribution scale, useful as dominance ranking. Using such scale, we found that almost half of the species are in the lowest rank (low abundance and aggregate distribution). Using GIS, we obtain the surface for each habitat, where mountainsides represent the largest in the reserve area. We obtained an index of importance from the proportion of endemic species by habitat and its surface occupied, founding that, in spite of the small and fragmented nature of the upland riparian habitats, they have the greatest index value. Consequently, for future conservation plans in the reserve, these habitats should be considered remarkable sites, meriting better attention to ensure endemic plant preservation. Also, since 86% of the endemic species appear in one, two or three habitats, a high dependency on particular environmental conditions is suggested for them.     

Iodine and zinc, but not selenium and copper, deficiency exists in a male Turkish population with endemic goiter

Although endemic goiter has been shown to have a high prevalence in Turkey, little is known about the concentration of urinary iodine, plasma selenium (Se), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) in these patients. We studied on 140 male patient with endemic goiter (mean age: 22.2 ± 0.19 yr) and 140 healthy male subjects (mean age: 21.8 ± 0.28 yr). Daily urinary iodine excretion was determined by the ionometric method. Plasma Se, Zn, and Cu were determined by using atomic absorption spectrometry. Daily urinary iodine excretion was found to be significantly lower in the patient group (38.7 ± 2.26 μg/d) than that of controls (50.73 ± 2.56 μg/day,p = 0.001). Plasma Zn concentrations were also found to be significantly lower in the patient group (1.04 ± 0.03 μg/mL) than that of controls (1.16 ± 0.02 μg/mL,p = 0.001). No significant difference was determined in Se and Cu concentrations between the patient and control groups. Our study shows that a moderate iodine deficiency exists in both patients with endemic goiter and control subjects, which indicates the important role of iodine deficiency in the etiopathogenesis of endemic goiter in Turkey. Zinc deficiency may also contribute to the pathogenesis of endemic goiter. However, Se and Cu do not seem to have any role in the etiopathogenesis of endemic goiter in Turkey. A community-based iodine fortification program throughout the country may be proposed to take over the problem, which also can prevent the contributing effects of other element deficiencies that occur when iodine deficiency is the prevailing factor.     

青海种子植物特有种及其生态地理分布

主要依据中国科学院西北高原生物研究所青藏高原生物标本馆内所存标本为基础,结合对相关资料的全面收集,整理出青海特有植物82种和37变种,隶属19科54属。文中除了分科、属列出每个种或种下类型在青海境内到县一级的产地、生境和海拔高度等以外,还列出了它们的原始文献和可供引证、查阅的标本号。是研究青海高原植物区系的组成、性质和特点以及发生和演变规律等方面问题的基础资料。     

Human Land use Threatens Endemic Wetland Species: The Case of Chorthippus lacustris (La Greca and Messina 1975) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) in Epirus, Greece

Chorthippus lacustris is an endemic grasshopper (Orthoptera) species in Epirus, Greece. Its population status, habitat characteristics, and relation to historical and current human land use are investigated. The species has a restricted and fragmented distribution pattern. Five locations, four within Pamvotida Lake basin and one in Lake Paramythia, cover a total of 0.12 km². It is strongly dependent on wet grasslands, flooded on a seasonal basis. The greatest population density is recorded in the site with the greatest diversity of dominant plant species. Ch. lacustris is estimated to have lost 85–99% of its habitat during the last 50 years due to wetland drainage. The main threat to the species survival is further habitat loss by urbanisation around Pamvotida Lake and by land conversion to agriculture in Paramythia Lake, even though both sites belong to the Natura 2000 network. The species status is Critically Endangered and it should be listed in Annex II of the Habitat Directive (92/43/EEC) as a priority species for conservation. Restoring wet grasslands, protecting them from further urbanisation and drainage, and monitoring species population are the main measures proposed for its conservation.     

Physical growth and development, neurological maturation, and behavioral functioning in two Ecuadorian Andean communities in which goiter is endemic. II. PTC taste sensitivity and neurological maturation

PTC (phenylthiocarbamide) taste sensitivity was correlated with a measure of visual-motor maturation in children six to 15 years of age in two Ecuadorian Andean communities in which goiter (enlargement of the thyroid gland) and cretinism are endemic. The children in one population received injections of iodine in oil IM in 1966 while the children in the other population did not. The correlations between PTC taste sensitivity and visual-motor maturation were significant in both sex groups in the non-iodized population, but not in the iodized population. There was also a significant increase in taste sensitivity with age in the non-iodized, but not the iodized, population. The data support the hypothesis that the sensitive “tasters” of PTC limit their ingestion of naturally occurring goitrogens and are at an adaptive advantage with respect to the less sensitive “tasters” and “non-tasters” in this area in which iodine intake is low and the consumption of food crops containing naturally occurring goitrogens is high.     

The UK Nest Record Scheme: its value for science and conservation

Capsule A review of its methodology, analytical procedures and uses.

Aims To provide a comprehensive review of the UK Nest Record Scheme (NRS), its methodology and value to science and conservation.

Methods We reviewed the history of the development and current methodology used in the analysis of NRS data in the scientific literature and unpublished documents and from our personal knowledge.

Results The British Trust for Ornithology's (BTO's) NRS is the largest, longest running and most highly computerized such scheme in the world. Advanced and efficient techniques of data gathering, data capture and analysis are used. It was founded in 1939 to provide information on the breeding biology of birds, but has since developed into a key component of the overall monitoring strategy for birds in the UK. A range of specialized analytical methods is available for NRS data and potential biases need careful treatment. More than 250 scientific publications have used NRS data to describe aspects of basic breeding biology and performance, to study the population dynamics of bird populations and to investigate the demographic causes of bird population declines in the UK.

Conclusions Extensive long-term monitoring schemes, such as the NRS, that collate large historical data sets will become increasingly valuable for monitoring the impact of environmental change. While aspects of the NRS, its recording methods, data capture and analysis can be developed further, the scheme will continue to advance our understanding of both the impacts of new environmental stresses in the UK and the effectiveness of new conservation measures in the wider countryside. This has been amply demonstrated by its use for exploring the impacts of global climate change on the UK's avifauna.     

Palaeogeography and geodynamic evolution of the Gosau Group of the Northern Calcareous Alps (Late Cretaceous, Eastern Alps, Austria)

The sedimentation of the Late Cretaceous Gosau Group of the Northern Calcareous Alps records the complex geodynamic evolution of the northern part of the Austroalpine microplate. The tectonically controlled sedimentation and facies distribution were mainly governed by the oblique subduction of the Pennic-Ligurian ocean below the Austroalpine margin. Most of the Gosau successions comprise two distinct sedimentary complexes. The Lower Gosau Subgroup (upper Turonian-Campanian) is characterized by terrestrial to shallow-marine facies associations: alluvial fan and fan delta deposits, shallow-marine sandstones and sandy limestones, and storm-influenced nearshore and shelf deposits. During the early Santonian sea-level highstand, a great part of the Northern Calcareous Alps was covered by a shallow shelf sea. Palaeotransport directions point to source areas situated both to the north and to the south of the Northern Calcareous Alps.

The Upper Gosau Subgroup (upper Santonian-Eocene) comprises deep-water hemipelagic and turbiditic deposits. Rapid subsidence into bathyal to abyssal depths started diachronously from the northwest (Santonian) to the southeast (Maastrichtian) after a short phase of deformation and erosion. Abyssal deposits in the northern parts of the Northern Calcareus Alps and north-directed palaeotransport indicate a tilting of the slope towards the north. This subsidence pulse is attributed to an event of subcrustal tectonic erosion, probably triggered by the subduction of a topographic high of the South Penninic ocean. The relationships of the Gosau Group of the Austroalpine unit to Late Cretaceous deposits of the Carpathians and Southern Alps are discussed in the framework of a plate tectonic model.     

Phylogeography of the endangered Eryngium alpinum L. (Apiaceae) in the European Alps

We studied the phylogeography of Eryngium alpinum by sequencing two intergenic chloroplast spacers, trnH-psbA and trnS-trnG (1322 bp). The sampling design included 36 populations and 397 individuals spanning the entire distribution range of the species, from France to Bosnia. Twenty-one haplotypes were characterized and polymorphism was observed both within and among populations. Population differentiation was strong (F(ST) = 0.92) and largely explained by the distinction of five geographic regions: Southwestern, Western, Middle, Eastern Alps and Balkans (F(CT) = 0.62). Moreover, N(ST) was significantly higher than G(ST) (P < 0.05), showing the existence of a phylogeographic pattern. Six major lineages were recognized using samova and median-joining networks. One lineage, highly divergent from the other ones, was only found in the Balkans and probably persisted in situ during last glaciations. All other lineages might have survived in a Southwestern refugium (Mercantour) and colonized the entire Alpine arc (Southwestern, Western, Middle and Eastern Alps) through repeated colonization events at different time periods. This is the first empirical study suggesting Southern refugia for calcareous Alpine plants, although the existence of a secondary refugium in northern Italy/Austria is also suspected. We also observed recent haplotype diversification, especially in the Southwestern Alps.     

Reproduction and ontogeny of Mastacomys fuscus (Rodentia: Muridae) in the Australian Alps and comparisons with other small mammals living in alpine communities

Two species of small rodents, Mastacomys fuscus and Rattus fuscipes, and one small dasyurid marsupial Antechinus swainsonii live sympatrically in the subalpine habitat of SE Australia. This paper describes the reproductive characteristics and ontogeny of M. fuscus, and shows that the three species have different reproductive strategies that, in part, are a reflection of their different phylogenies. Cold and snow in winter, and a short summer season, limit the length of time available for reproduction and development. The rodent species exhibit similar reproductive characteristics to those in alpine regions of Europe, North America and South Africa.     

Phylogeography of the burnet moth Zygaena transalpina complex: molecular and morphometric differentiation suggests glacial refugia in Southern France,Western France and micro‐refugia within the Alps

Patterns of common recolonization routes from glacial refugia to Central Europe during the Pleistocene are generalized to paradigms of postglacial recolonization in Europe. Recent studies indicate, however, that the actual phylogeographic history of many species might be more complex and cannot be simplified to generalized patterns. Burnet moths of the Zygaena transalpina complex represent a group of closely related taxa, which are considered as a typical example for these generalized patterns. At present, three groups are recognized that are assumed to have spread from three classical refugia in Western Europe, Italy and the Balkans to Central Europe. Here, we re‐investigate their phylogeography using a combined molecular and morphometric approach. Phylogenetic and nested clade phylogeographic analyses of 476 samples from 55 localities taken from Southern and Central Europe reveal that the Zygaena transalpina complex consists of three distinct haplotype clusters, which geographically roughly correspond to possible refugia in Western Europe, Italy and the Balkans. A synthesis of the data with a geometric morphometry dataset of 425 specimens from 46 localities corroborates this molecular result but differs in several aspects. Important new aspects are multiple refugia of the western ‘hippocrepidis’ branch and micro‐habitats within the Alps of the central ‘transalpina’ branch. Further, our results display a more complex phylogeographic pattern for this species complex, which is not tractable with a rigid, generalized pattern.     

DNA in soil: adsorption,genetic transformation,molecular evolution and genetic microchip

This review examines interactions between DNA and soil with an emphasis on the persistence and stability of DNA in soil. The role of DNA in genetic transformation in soil microorganisms will also be discussed. In addition, a postulated mechanism for stabilization and elongation/asserbly of primitive genetic material and the role of soil particles, salt concentrations, temperature cycling and crystal formation is examined.     

Response of benthic macroinvertebrates to whole-lake, non-native fish treatments in mid-elevation lakes of the Trinity Alps, California

Introduced fish reduce the abundance and diversity of native aquatic fauna, but the effect can be reduced in complex habitats. We manipulated fish populations in forested mountain lakes to determine whether or not fish affected benthic macroinvertebrate composition across lakes with differing habitat complexity. We compared abundance, biomass, body-length, and community structure of benthic macroinvertebrates from 16 lakes with three treatments (fish stocked, suspended stocking, fish removed) and unstocked fishless “controls”. Over 4 years, we assessed the relative importance of fish and environmental variables influencing the composition of benthic macroinvertebrates. Control lakes had the greatest overall abundance of macroinvertebrates when chironomid midges were excluded. Abundances of insects in the clinger/swimmer functional group and caddisflies were greatest in the control lakes but were primarily influenced by habitat variables including the availability of aquatic vegetation and wood. Total biomass and mean body length of macroinvertebrates were not affected by treatment. Taxon richness of macroinvertebrates was about 40% greater in the control lakes compared to the treatment lakes but did not differ among treatments. Our results suggest that fish reduce susceptible macroinvertebrate richness and abundances, but that changes associated with alterations of fish composition are confounded by other factors in complex lake habitats.