LC3脂质化修饰的机制和功能研究进展

LC3(包括LC3/GABARAP蛋白家族所有成员)的脂质化修饰是细胞自噬过程中的关键事件. LC3完成脂质化修饰后,由水溶性形式转化为膜结合形式,在自噬小体的形成、自噬底物的招募和自噬小体-溶酶体融合等阶段均发挥重要作用.包括营养状态和病原菌入侵在内的多种细胞内外刺激信号均可参与调控LC3的脂质化修饰过程.近年来的研究发现,脂质化的LC3不仅可以靶向细胞内双层膜的自噬小体,也可以靶向细胞内多种单层膜结构,如吞噬体和溶酶体等,参与调控细胞的内吞和微自噬等生物学过程.本文将围绕LC3脂质化修饰的机制和功能综述近年来的相关研究进展.     

细胞自噬研究进展

细胞自噬是真核生物在进化过程中高度保守、基于溶酶体的一种胞内降解途径,对维持细胞和生物体的稳态平衡有重要作用。研究表明,自噬参与生物体发育、免疫反应、代谢调节、细胞凋亡和衰老等多种过程。自噬功能异常与神经退行性疾病、肿瘤等的发生发展密切相关。近30年,我们对细胞自噬的认识无论是在分子机制上还是生理功能方面都有了长足的发展。为进一步加深对细胞自噬的认识,该文主要对细胞自噬的概念、自噬核心机器的组成及调控机制、自噬类型、生理功能及与疾病的关系作一简单综述。     

编者按: 自噬与疾病

自噬是细胞的一个重要生物学功能。细胞通过对自噬底物的识别、自噬囊泡的形成,再经过与溶酶体的融合,清除老化细胞器以及降解长周期蛋白和异常积聚蛋白。因此,自噬在蛋白质的代谢、细胞器更新以及组织发育中有着重要作用,其功能调控直接参与了机体对细胞稳态的维持和对疾病的抵抗。目前已有大量研究表明,自噬与疾病的发生密切相关,如心血管病、肿瘤、炎症和免疫以及神经退行性疾病等。近年来,自噬研究得到了国内外科学家的广泛重视,研究论文的数量直线上升。科技部和国家自然科学基金委均已资助相关课题,这进一步促进了我国在自噬研究领域的发展。我国科学家在自噬的机制和疾病关系研究中也取得了重大进展,许多研究成果已经走在世界前沿。本刊对自噬这一研究领域一直十分关注,为促进对该领域现状及发展的了解,本期汇集了6 篇述评和1 篇研究论文,作为自噬研究专题发表,以飨读者。 本专题主要对自噬与一些相关疾病关系的现状和发展进行了评述,并对自噬研究方法学和基本机制也进行了综述,同时报道了在果蝇脊髓小脑变性3型动物模型中开展的关于自噬与Sir2发挥神经保护作用相关性的研究,反映了目前自噬研究的一个侧面。马泰等主要综述了目前自噬研究的技术和方法进展,评价了自噬的评估指标和这些自噬方法学的应用,提供了一个自噬方法学上的基础交流。吴葩等介绍了PI3K复合物中各组分蛋白与细胞自噬的关系,详细阐述了该通路在细胞自噬调节中的最新研究进展,为这一信号通路研究提供了信息。何云凌等很好地总结了低氧环境诱导线粒体自噬发生的相关分子机制,对参与调节线粒体自噬的重要蛋白进行了系统的描述,为目前人们普遍关注的线粒体自噬与疾病的关系提供了前沿资料。谢凤等对心脏疾病状态下细胞自噬的发生、发展及其对心脏疾病的影响进行了详细的论述,有助于研究者从自噬的角度来探讨心脏疾病的发生发展及其机制。林小龙等围绕当前热点问题对自噬与血管内皮细胞的关系作了描述,介绍了血管内皮细胞在各种药物刺激以及相关蛋白质过表达情况下对于自噬的反应以及所引起的下游应答,探讨了自噬与血管疾病发病的相互关系。向波等介绍了细胞自噬与肿瘤的发生发展的关系,描述了炎症-自噬-肿瘤的相关性以及自噬可能的抑瘤机制。曾爱源等利用果蝇的遗传性脊髓小脑变性3 型模型,研究了Sir2在自噬存在情况下对转基因果蝇的神经保护作用,并发现在自噬抑制后Sir2的保护作用明显减弱,揭示了Sir2通过自噬保护神经元、减缓神经变性蛋白损伤的作用机制。 本刊欢迎和期待更多、更好的有关自噬研究的来稿,以更广泛和深入地促进我国自噬研究领域的发展和学术交流。     

SNARE蛋白调控细胞自噬的分子机制

细胞自噬是细胞在面对内外部环境压力的情况下, 为了自身的稳定而采取的一种降解内部及外来入侵物质的机制。SNARE(Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors)假说指出SNARE蛋白在细胞物质运输以及特异性膜融合过程中具有重要作用, 揭示了细胞正常生理活动有序进行的分子机制。由于细胞自噬涉及从自噬体的形成到自噬体溶酶体的融合等诸多膜融合的过程, 因此, 文章对近年来SNARE蛋白在调控细胞自噬过程的研究进展进行了综述。     

mTOR 信号通路与自噬在肿瘤中的研究进展

自噬是以细胞内自噬体形成为特征,通过溶酶体吸收降解自身受损细胞器和大分子的一种自我消化过程,是细胞维持稳态的重要机制。自噬广泛参与多种重要的细胞功能,既能在代谢应激状态下保护受损细胞,又可能因为过度激活导致细胞发生II型程序性死亡,从而引发多种疾病,尤其对肿瘤的发生和发展更是发挥着"双刃剑"的作用。自噬通过多种分子信号机制调控肿瘤进程,包括mTOR依赖性和mTOR非依赖性途径。mTOR作为生长因子、能量和营养状态的感受器,可通过调节下游自噬复合物的形成,直接调控细胞自噬。阐明mTOR与细胞自噬的相互作用机制将有助于从分子水平上对各肿瘤病变进行分析和治疗。因此,本文就自噬与PI3K/Akt/mTOR通路在肿瘤中的研究进展作一综述。     

病毒感染中细胞自噬研究进展

细胞自噬是一种依赖于溶酶体的细胞内降解途径,用于细胞维持内环境的稳态.自噬广泛存在于真核细胞的生理、病理过程中.研究发现自噬与病毒之间的相互作用是一个复杂且多向化的过程,一方面自噬能够参与机体免疫应答、发挥抗病毒效应;另一方面,细胞的自噬机制也可被病毒操纵,以利于其自身复制.本文对近年来细胞自噬与病毒感染的相互作用进展,尤其是病毒如何调控自噬以促进其复制和致病的机制加以综述.     

细胞自噬在HIV病毒发病机理中的作用

细胞自噬是真核细胞在长期进化过程中形成的一种自我保护机制．通过溶酶体途径将胞质蛋白和细胞器降解为小分子．从而为饥饿状态下的细胞提供能量。此外,细胞自噬还能清除入侵的病原性微生物,在天然性和适应性免疫中发挥重要作用。然而近年来研究发现,细胞自噬不仅不能清除HIV病毒,反而有助于HIV病毒的复-a4。此外,HIV病毒蛋白似乎能够阻断细胞自噬作用．促进CD4＋T淋巴细胞死亡和艾滋病的发生。简要介绍了细胞自噬的机制。以及细胞自噬在HIV病毒感染中的病理、生理作用。研究细胞自噬与HIV病毒之间的相互作用．有望发现治疗艾滋病的新靶点。     

浮游植物细胞自噬作用特点及研究方法

自噬(Autophagy)是真核生物细胞中一类高度保守的、依赖于溶酶体或液泡途径对胞质蛋白和细胞器进行降解的生物学过程。细胞自噬除维持细胞稳态外,在细胞响应各种外界胁迫中也发挥重要作用。近年来,陆续发现浮游植物能够通过细胞自噬应答众多环境胁迫,并在浮游植物细胞中鉴定出了类似于哺乳动物细胞中的核心自噬功能单位。自噬作为一种独特的程序性细胞死亡(PCD)形式,对浮游植物遭受胁迫后的个体存活及种群延续具有至关重要的作用。因此,细胞自噬也将成为浮游植物研究领域的一个新的着力点。主要综述了浮游植物细胞中自噬的保守性、诱导因素、调控机制、自噬与凋亡的交互作用以及浮游植物自噬研究方法等研究进展。     

细胞自噬调控的分子机制研究进展

细胞自噬是一种进化上保守的分解代谢过程,涉及细胞内长寿命蛋白和受损伤细胞器的降解,其在细胞内稳态、肿瘤、心力衰竭、衰老相关性疾病、神经退行性疾病以及传染病等多种生命进程中发挥着重要作用。泛素样蛋白系统、m TOR信号通路、micro RNA、caspase等均参与了细胞自噬调控过程。该文综述了细胞自噬过程、功能和分子调控机制的研究进展,以期有助于研究细胞自噬机理,为治疗心脏疾病(如动脉粥样硬化)、癌症(如乳腺癌)等提供理论基础。     

细胞程序性死亡在卵泡闭锁中的作用及机制

卵泡颗粒细胞凋亡和自噬在动物卵巢卵泡闭锁过程中发挥重要的调控作用。新近研究表明,铁死亡和焦亡也参与卵巢卵泡闭锁过程。铁死亡是一种铁依赖性脂质过氧化和活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)积累引起的细胞死亡形式。研究证实,自噬和凋亡介导的卵泡闭锁过程中也有典型的铁死亡特征。细胞焦亡是依赖于Gasdermin蛋白的促炎性细胞死亡,可通过调节卵泡颗粒细胞调控卵巢繁殖性能。本文综述了几种细胞程序性死亡独立或相互作用参与调控卵泡闭锁的作用及机制,以期扩展卵泡闭锁机制的理论研究,为细胞程序性细胞死亡诱导卵泡闭锁的作用机制提供理论参考。     

PI3K/AKT/FOXO信号通路介导的自噬在糖尿病认知功能障碍中的作用

糖尿病作为一种高血糖为主要特征的代谢性疾病,会引起中枢神经系统损伤,造成脑组织结构和功能改变,进而导致认知功能障碍。目前,糖尿病对认知功能障碍的影响及相关调控机制已成为国内外研究的热点和难点。磷酸肌醇3激酶/蛋白激酶B/叉头样转录因子（PI3K/AKT/FOXO）通路是自噬的重要上游调控机制。本文概述了PI3K/AKT/FOXO信号通路可调控Gs, Bnip3和Spk2等基因的表达;GS可以通过调控Gln-mTORC1通路,从而激活自噬;BNIP3促进LC3表达,上调自噬水平; 此外,AMPK-FOXO3a-mTORC1也是自噬的重要上游调控机制。以上研究提示,FOXO3a可能是糖尿病认知功能障碍（DACD）治疗的重要靶点。通过本综述为临床上治疗DACD及其相关药物的研发提供更为深入的理论依据和分子靶点。     

Identification of Atg3 as an intrinsically disordered polypeptide yields insights into the molecular dynamics of autophagy-related proteins in yeast

The mechanism of autophagy relies on complex cell signaling and regulatory processes. Each cell contains many proteins that lack a rigid 3-dimensional structure under physiological conditions. These dynamic proteins, called intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and protein regions (IDPRs), are predominantly involved in cell signaling and regulation. Yet, very little is known about their presence among proteins of the core autophagy machinery. In this work, we characterized the autophagy protein Atg3 from yeast and human along with 2 variants to show that Atg3 is an IDPRs-containing protein and that disorder/order predicted for these proteins from their amino acid sequence corresponds to their experimental characteristics. Based on this consensus, we applied the same prediction methods to all known Atg proteins from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The data presented here provide an insight into the structural dynamics of each Atg protein. They also show that intrinsic disorder at various levels has to be taken into consideration for about half of the Atg proteins. This work should become a useful tool that will facilitate and encourage exploration of protein intrinsic disorder in autophagy.     

Identification of Atg3 as an intrinsically disordered polypeptide yields insights into the molecular dynamics of autophagy-related proteins in yeast

The mechanism of autophagy relies on complex cell signaling and regulatory processes. Each cell contains many proteins that lack a rigid 3-dimensional structure under physiological conditions. These dynamic proteins, called intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and protein regions (IDPRs), are predominantly involved in cell signaling and regulation. Yet, very little is known about their presence among proteins of the core autophagy machinery. In this work, we characterized the autophagy protein Atg3 from yeast and human along with 2 variants to show that Atg3 is an IDPRs-containing protein and that disorder/order predicted for these proteins from their amino acid sequence corresponds to their experimental characteristics. Based on this consensus, we applied the same prediction methods to all known Atg proteins from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The data presented here provide an insight into the structural dynamics of each Atg protein. They also show that intrinsic disorder at various levels has to be taken into consideration for about half of the Atg proteins. This work should become a useful tool that will facilitate and encourage exploration of protein intrinsic disorder in autophagy.     

MERS冠状病毒3C样蛋白酶是一种新的细胞自噬诱导蛋白

冠状病毒（Coronavirus, CoV）3C样蛋白酶（3CLpro）在冠状病毒复制过程中起重要作用,是一种重要的潜在抗病毒药物候选靶标。细胞自噬是宿主重要抗病毒防御机制之一,但目前冠状病毒诱导细胞自噬及其机制还不很清楚。本研究以人类新发高致病性冠状病毒 --中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒（MERS CoV）为研究对象,探讨人类冠状病毒感染与细胞自噬的关系。通过免疫荧光法检测发现,MERS 3CLpro引起细胞内eGFP-LC3B绿色荧光点状聚集,同时MERS 3CLpro诱导自噬标志蛋白微管相关蛋白1-轻链3基 (LC3-II)表达增多,表明MERS 3CLpro可激活细胞自噬。进一步研究发现,MERS 3CLpro诱导细胞自噬体形成而阻断或抑制自噬溶酶体形成,即MERS 3CLpro诱导不完全细胞自噬效应,而且MERS 3CLpro诱导细胞自噬具有时间依赖性且不依赖于其蛋白酶催化活性。此外发现SARS CoV和NL63 CoV等其它人类冠状病毒3CLpro也具有诱导细胞自噬效应,表明3CLpro诱导细胞自噬可能是人类冠状病毒所具有的一种普遍生物学特性。本研究首次发现冠状病毒蛋白酶3CLpro能诱导宿主细胞自噬,是一种新型冠状病毒来源的宿主细胞自噬诱导蛋白,这一发现拓展了对人类冠状病毒蛋白酶功能的新认识,为研究冠状病毒与宿主抗病毒天然免疫以及以病毒蛋白酶为靶标的抗病毒药物研究提供了理论基础。     

Regulation of autophagic activity by 14-3-3ζ proteins associated with class III phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase

14-3-3s are binding proteins with survival functions in cells by interaction with proteins involved in the regulation of cell fate. The role of 14-3-3 during autophagy was investigated, thus, a forced expression of 14-3-3ζ reduces C2-ceramide-induced autophagy, whereas depletion of 14-3-3ζ promotes autophagy. The 14-3-3 role in autophagyc-related proteins was also investigated. The human vacuolar protein sorting 34 (hVps34), the class III phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase mediates multiple vesicle-trafficking processes such as endocytosis and autophagy, its activation being a requirement for autophagy initiation. Using chromatography techniques, hVps34 were eluted from a 14-3-3 affinity column, showing also a direct interaction with 14-3-3 proteins under physiological condition. Further analysis suggests that hVps34/14-3-3 association is a phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate-dependent phosphorylated mechanism promoting a strong inhibition of the hVps34 lipid kinase activity, proteins kinase C being the likely kinase involved in phosphorylation and 14-3-3 binding of hVps34 under physiological conditions. Meanwhile, stimulation of autophagy leads to the dissociation of the 14-3-3/hVps34 complex enhancing hVps34 lipid kinase activity. Forced expression of 14-3-3ζ reduces hVps34 kinase activity and depletion of 14-3-3ζ promotes upregulation of this activity. In this study, 14-3-3ζ proteins are shown as a negative regulator of autophagy through regulation of a key component of early stages of the autophagy pathway, such as hVps34.     

The NEDD4-USP13 axis facilitates autophagy via deubiquitinating PIK3C3

ABSTRACT

Macroautophagy/autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved eukaryotic bioprocess, plays an important role in the bulk degradation of intracellular macromolecules, organelles, and invading pathogens. PIK3C3/VPS34 (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3) functions as a key protein in autophagy initiation and progression. The activity of PIK3C3 is tightly regulated by multiple post-translational modifications, including ubiquitination, however, the regulatory mechanisms underpinning the reversible deubiquitination of PIK3C3 remain poorly understood. Recently, we identified the E3 ubiquitin ligase NEDD4/NEDD4-1 as a positive regulator of autophagy through decreasing the K48-linked ubiquitination of PIK3C3 by recruiting USP13.     

A nonapoptotic role for CASP2/caspase 2

CASP2/caspase 2 plays a role in aging, neurodegeneration, and cancer. The contributions of CASP2 have been attributed to its regulatory role in apoptotic and nonapoptotic processes including the cell cycle, DNA repair, lipid biosynthesis, and regulation of oxidant levels in the cells. Previously, our lab demonstrated CASP2-mediated modulation of autophagy during oxidative stress. Here we report the novel finding that CASP2 is an endogenous repressor of autophagy. Knockout or knockdown of CASP2 resulted in upregulation of autophagy in a variety of cell types and tissues. Reinsertion of Caspase-2 gene (Casp2) in mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEFs) lacking Casp2 (casp2^?/?) suppresses autophagy, suggesting its role as a negative regulator of autophagy. Loss of CASP2-mediated autophagy involved AMP-activated protein kinase, mechanistic target of rapamycin, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and autophagy-related proteins, indicating the involvement of the canonical pathway of autophagy. The present study also demonstrates an important role for loss of CASP2-induced enhanced reactive oxygen species production as an upstream event in autophagy induction. Additionally, in response to a variety of stressors that induce CASP2-mediated apoptosis, casp2^?/? cells demonstrate a further upregulation of autophagy compared with wild-type MEFs, and upregulated autophagy provides a survival advantage. In conclusion, we document a novel role for CASP2 as a negative regulator of autophagy, which may provide important insight into the role of CASP2 in various processes including aging, neurodegeneration, and cancer.     

BAG3-dependent noncanonical autophagy induced by proteasome inhibition in HepG2 cells

Emerging lines of evidence have shown that blockade of ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) activates autophagy. The molecular players that regulate the relationship between them remain to be elucidated. Bcl-2 associated athanogene 3 (BAG3) is a member of the BAG co-chaperone family that regulates the ATPase activity of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) chaperone family. Studies on BAG3 have demonstrated that it plays multiple roles in physiological and pathological processes, including antiapoptotic activity, signal transduction, regulatory role in virus infection, cell adhesion and migration. Recent studies have attracted much attention on its role in initiation of autophagy. The current study, for the first time, demonstrates that proteasome inhibitors elicit noncanonical autophagy, which was not suppressed by inhibitors of class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K) or shRNA against Beclin 1 (BECN1). In addition, we demonstrate that BAG3 is ascribed to activation of autophagy elicited by proteasome inhibitors and MAPK8/9/10 (also known as JNK1/2/3 respectively) activation is also implicated via upregulation of BAG3. Moreover, we found that noncanonical autophagy mediated by BAG3 suppresses responsiveness of HepG2 cells to proteasome inhibitors.