Chorismate synthase. Pre-steady-state kinetics of phosphate release from 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate.

The pre-steady-state kinetics of phosphate formation from 5-enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate catalysed by Escherichia coli chorismate synthase (EC 4.6.1.4) were studied by a rapid-acid-quench technique at 25 degrees C at pH 7.5. No pre-steady-state 'burst' or 'lag' phase was observed, showing that phosphate is released concomitant with the rate-limiting step of the enzyme. The implications of this result for the mechanism of action of chorismate synthase are discussed.     

Transient state kinetic investigation of 5-aminolevulinate synthase reaction mechanism

5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS), a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme, catalyzes the first, and regulatory, step of the heme biosynthetic pathway in nonplant eukaryotes and some bacteria. 5-Aminolevulinate synthase is a dimeric protein having an ordered kinetic mechanism with glycine binding before succinyl-CoA and with aminolevulinate release after CoA and carbon dioxide. Rapid scanning stopped-flow absorption spectrophotometry in conjunction with multiple turnover chemical quenched-flow kinetic analyses and a newly developed CoA detection method were used to examine the ALAS catalytic reaction and identify the rate-determining step. The reaction of glycine with ALAS follows a three-step kinetic process, ascribed to the formation of the Michaelis complex and the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-glycine aldimine, followed by the abstraction of the glycine pro-R proton from the external aldimine. Significantly, the rate associated with this third step (k(3) = 0.002 s(-1)) is consistent with the rate determined for the ALAS-catalyzed removal of tritium from [2-(3)H(2)]glycine. Succinyl-CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA increased the rate of glycine proton removal approximately 250,000- and 10-fold, respectively, supporting our previous proposal that the physiological substrate, succinyl-CoA, promotes a protein conformational change, which accelerates the conversion of the external aldimine into the initial quinonoid intermediate (Hunter, G. A., and Ferreira, G. C. (1999) J. Biol. Chem. 274, 12222-12228). Rapid scanning stopped-flow and quenched-flow kinetic analyses of the ALAS reaction under single turnover conditions lend evidence for two quinonoid reaction intermediates and a model of the ALAS kinetic mechanism in which product release is at least the partially rate-limiting step. Finally, the carbonyl and carboxylate groups of 5-aminolevulinate play a major protein-interacting role by inducing a conformational change in ALAS and, thus, possibly modulating product release.     

Pre-steady-state analysis of the nucleoside hydrolase of Trypanosoma vivax. Evidence for half-of-the-sites reactivity and rate-limiting product release

The nucleoside hydrolase (NH) of the Trypanosoma vivax parasite catalyzes the hydrolysis of the N-glycosidic bond in ribonucleosides according to the following reaction: beta-purine (or pyrimidine) nucleoside + H(2)O --> purine (pyrimidine) base + ribose. The reaction follows a highly dissociative nucleophilic displacement reaction mechanism with a ribosyl oxocarbenium-like transition state. This paper describes the first pre-steady-state analysis of the conversion of a number of purine nucleosides. The NH exhibits burst kinetics and behaves with half-of-the-sites reactivity. The analysis suggests that the NH of T. vivax follows a complex multistep mechanism in which a common slow step different from the chemical hydrolysis is rate limiting. Stopped-flow fluorescence binding experiments with ribose indicate that a tightly bound enzyme-ribose complex accumulates during the enzymatic hydrolysis of the common purine nucleosides. This is caused by a slow isomerization between a tight and a loose enzyme-ribose complex forming the rate-limiting step on the reaction coordinate.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the 5-aminolevulinate synthase gene.

The evolution of 5-aminolevulinate synthase (ALS) was studied by acquiring sequence data and generating phylogenetic trees. Gene sequences were already available for a variety of vertebrates (which have both a housekeeping and an erythroid form of the gene), fungi, alpha-proteobacteria, and one protist and one protostome. In order to generate representative trees, ALS sequence data were acquired from various deuterostomes and protostomes. The species and tissues selected for study were beluga whale liver, hagfish blood, sea urchin gonadal tissue, cuttlefish hepatopancreas, horseshoe crab hepatopancreas, and bloodworm blood. The new sequences and those previously published were examined for the presence of heme-regulatory motifs (HRMs) and iron-responsive elements (IREs). The HRMs are present in almost all eukaryotic species, which suggests their fundamental role in the regulation of ALS. The IREs are present in all vertebrate erythroid forms of ALS, which indicates that in those animals, expression of the erythroid form of the enzyme and, hence, hemoglobin production can be influenced by the intracellular content of iron. The new sequences were aligned with previously reported ALS sequences, and phylogenetic analyses were performed. The resulting trees provided evidence regarding the timing of the gene duplication event that led to the two forms of the ALS gene in vertebrates. It appears that the housekeeping and erythroid forms of ALS probably arose before the divergence of hagfish from the deuterostome line leading to the vertebrates. The data also add to the evidence indicating that alpha-proteobacteria are the nearest contemporary relatives of mitochondria.     

Pre-steady-state kinetic analysis of riboflavin synthase using a pentacyclic reaction intermediate as substrate

Riboflavin synthase catalyses a mechanistically complex dismutation affording riboflavin and 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1H,3H )-pyrimidinedione from 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine. A pentacyclic adduct (compound 2 ) of two substrate molecules was used as substrate for pre-steady-state kinetic analysis. Whereas the wild-type enzyme catalyses the decomposition of compound 2 into a mixture of riboflavin and 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1H,3H )-pyrimidinedione, as well as into two equivalents of 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine, a H102Q mutant enzyme predominantly catalyses the former reaction. Stopped-flow experiments with this mutant enzyme failed to identify a reaction intermediate between compound 2 and riboflavin. However, the apparent rate constants for the formation of riboflavin as observed by stopped-flow and quenched-flow experiments were significantly different, thus suggesting that the reaction proceeds via a significantly populated intermediate, the absorbance of which is similar to that of compound 2 . An F2A mutant enzyme converts compound 2 predominantly into 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine. Stopped-flow experiments using compound 2 as substrate indicated a slight and rapid initial increase in absorbance at 310 nm, followed by a slower decrease. This finding, in conjunction with different apparent rates for the formation of 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine, suggests the involvement of a significantly populated intermediate in the transition between compound 2 and 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine, the optical spectrum of which is similar to that of compound 1.     

Lysine-313 of 5-aminolevulinate synthase acts as a general base during formation of the quinonoid reaction intermediates

5-Aminolevulinate synthase catalyzes the condensation of glycine and succinyl-CoA to form CoA, carbon dioxide, and 5-aminolevulinate. This represents the first committed step of heme biosynthesis in animals and some bacteria. Lysine 313 (K313) of mature murine erythroid 5-aminolevulinate synthase forms a Schiff base linkage to the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate cofactor. In the presence of glycine and succinyl-CoA, a quinonoid intermediate absorption is transiently observed in the visible spectrum of purified murine erythroid ALAS. Mutant enzymes with K313 replaced by glycine, histidine, or arginine exhibit no spectral evidence of quinonoid intermediate formation in the presence of glycine and succinyl-CoA. The wild-type 5-aminolevulinate synthase additionally forms a stable quinonoid intermediate in the presence of the product, 5-aminolevulinate. Only conservative mutation of K313 to histidine or arginine produces a variant that forms a quinonoid intermediate with 5-aminolevulinate. The quinonoid intermediate absorption of these mutants is markedly less than that of the wild-type enzyme, however. Whereas the wild-type enzyme catalyzes loss of tritium from [2-3H2]-glycine, mutation of K313 to glycine results in loss of this activity. Titration of the quinonoid intermediate formed upon binding of 5-aminolevulinate to the wild-type enzyme indicated that the quinonoid intermediate forms by transfer of a single proton with a pK of 8.1 +/- 0.1. Conservative mutation of K313 to histidine raises this value to 8.6 +/- 0.1. We propose that K313 acts as a general base catalyst to effect quinonoid intermediate formation during the 5-aminolevulinate synthase catalytic cycle.     

Characterization of 5-aminolevulinate synthase from Agrobacterium radiobacter,screening new inhibitors for 5-aminolevulinate dehydratase from Escherichia coli and their potential use for high 5-aminolevulinate production

The hemA gene encoding 5-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS) from Agrobacterium radiobacter zju-0121 showed 92.6% homology with that from A. radiobacter ATCC4718 and contained several rare codons. To enhance the expression of this gene, Escherichia coli Rosetta(DE3), which is a rare codon optimizer strain, was used as the host to construct an efficient recombinant strain. And the encoded protein was over-expressed as fusion protein and was purified by affinity purification on Ni-NTA agarose and by gel filtration chromatography on Sephadex G-25 Medium resin. The recombinant protein was partly characterized, and d-glucose, d-fructose, d-xylose, d-mannose, l-arabinose, d-galactose, lactose, sucrose and maltose were detected to have no distinct inhibition on this recombinant ALAS. Meanwhile, 20 mM d-glucose or d-xylose inhibited about 20% activity of ALA dehydratase (ALAD) from Escherichia coli Rosetta(DE3). Combining d-xylose as a new inhibitor for ALAD with d-glucose in fed-batch culture and based on the optimal culture system using Rosetta(DE3)/pET28a-hemA, the yield of ALA achieved was 7.3 g/l (56 mM) under the appropriate conditions in the fermenter.     

Induction of 5-aminolevulinate synthase by activators of steroid biosynthesis

Different cytochromes P450 are involved in steroid biosynthesis. These cytochromes have heme as the prosthetic group. We previously reported that ACTH, an activator of glucocorticoid biosynthesis in adrenal, requires heme biosynthesis for a maximal response. In the present study, we investigated the effect of ACTH, and the effect of two activators of the adrenal mineralocorticoid synthesis, endothelin-1 and low sodium diet on 5-aminolevulinate-synthase (ALA-s) mRNA. ALA-s is the rate-limiting enzyme in heme biosynthesis. It was found that infusion of rats with ACTH for 1 h caused an increase of adrenal ALA-s mRNA and activity accompanied by an increase in plasma corticosterone. CYP21, a cytochrome involved in the synthesis of both corticosterone and aldosterone, was not modified at the RNA level in adrenal glands by 1 h of ACTH infusion. Consistently, infusion of endothelin-1 for 1 h increased ALA-s mRNA and aldosterone content in adrenal gland without modifying CYP21 mRNA levels. To study if ALA-s is also regulated by the main physiological stimuli that increase adrenal mineralocorticoid secretion, we fed rats with low salt diet for 2 or 15 days. Low salt diet treatment increased adrenal gland ALA-s mRNA levels. On the other hand, the rapid stimulation of ALA-s mRNA by ACTH which acts through cyclic AMP was confirmed in H295R human adrenocortical cells, the only human adrenal cell line that has a steroid secretion pattern and regulation similar to primary cultures of adrenal cells. Our findings suggest that the acute activation of adrenal steroidogenic cytochromes by trophic hormones involves an increase in heme biosynthesis which will favor the production of active cytochromes.     

A unique gene for 5-aminolevulinate synthase in chickens. Evidence for expression of an identical messenger RNA in hepatic and erythroid tissues

Reports to date have led to the conclusion that there are isozymes for 5-aminolevulinate synthase in the liver and erythroid tissue of chicken. Indeed, the existence of a multigene family for chicken 5-aminolevulinate synthase has been proposed. We find no evidence to support these proposals. In this work we show that 5-aminolevulinate synthase mRNA from chicken liver and reticulocytes is identical as determined by RNase mapping and primer extension studies and that the 5-aminolevulinate synthase protein from these tissues is the same size as judged by immunoblot analysis. We also show that a single mRNA species for 5-aminolevulinate synthase is present in chicken liver, reticulocytes, brain, and heart and an avian erythroblastosis virus-transformed chicken erythroblast cell line. Southern analysis shows the presence of only one gene copy for 5-aminolevulinate synthase in the chicken haploid genome. Overall, these results lead to the conclusion that in chickens 5-aminolevulinate synthase is encoded by a unique gene and is expressed as a single mRNA species in all tissues.     

The role of tyrosine 121 in cofactor binding of 5-aminolevulinate synthase.

5-Aminolevulinate synthase (EC 2.3.1.37) is the first enzyme in the heme biosynthesis in nonplant eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. It functions as a homodimer and requires pyridoxal 5'-phosphate as an essential cofactor. Tyr-121 is a conserved residue in all known sequences of 5-aminolevulinate synthases. Further, it corresponds to Tyr-70 of Escherichia coli aspartate aminotransferase, which has been shown to interact with the cofactor and prevent the dissociation of the cofactor from the enzyme. To test whether Tyr-121 is involved in cofactor binding in murine erythroid 5-aminolevulinate synthase, Tyr-121 of murine erythroid 5-aminolevulinate synthase was substituted by Phe and His using site-directed mutagenesis. The Y121F mutant retained 36% of the wild-type activity and the Km value for substrate glycine increased 34-fold, while the activity of the Y121H mutant decreased to 5% of the wild-type activity and the Km value for glycine increased fivefold. The pKa1 values in the pH-activity profiles of the wild-type and mutant enzymes were 6.41, 6.54, and 6.65 for wild-type, Y121F, and Y121H, respectively. The UV-visible and CD spectra of Y121F and Y121H mutants were similar to those of the wild-type with the exception of an absorption maximum shift (420 --> 395 nm) for the Y121F mutant in the visible spectrum region, suggesting that the cofactor binds the Y121F mutant enzyme in a more unrestrained manner. Y121F and Y121H mutant enzymes also exhibited lower affinity than the wild-type for the cofactor, reflected in the Kd values for pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (26.5, 6.75, and 1.78 microM for Y121F, Y121H, and the wild-type, respectively). Further, Y121F and Y121H proved less thermostable than the wild type. Taken together, these findings indicate that Tyr-121 plays a critical role in cofactor binding of murine erythroid 5-aminolevulinate synthase.     

Circular permutation of 5-aminolevulinate synthase. Mapping the polypeptide chain to its function

5-Aminolevulinate synthase is the first enzyme of the heme biosynthetic pathway in non-plant eukaryotes and some prokaryotes. The enzyme functions as a homodimer and requires pyridoxal 5'-phosphate as a cofactor. Although the roles of defined amino acids in the active site and catalytic mechanism have been recently explored using site-directed mutagenesis, much less is known about the role of the 5-aminolevulinate synthase polypeptide chain arrangement in folding, structure, and ultimately, function. To assess the importance of the continuity of the polypeptide chain, circularly permuted 5-aminolevulinate synthase variants were constructed through either rational design or screening of an engineered random library. One percent of the random library clones were active, and a total of 21 active variants had sequences different from that of the wild type 5-aminolevulinate synthase. Out of these 21 variants, 9 displayed unique circular permutations of the 5-aminolevulinate synthase polypeptide chain. The new termini of the active variants disrupted secondary structure elements and loop regions and fell in 100 amino acid regions from each terminus. This indicates that the natural continuity of the 5-aminolevulinate synthase polypeptide chain and the sequential arrangement of the secondary structure elements are not requirements for proper folding, binding of the cofactor, or assembly of the two subunits. Furthermore, the order of two identified functional elements (i.e. the catalytic and the glycine-binding domains) is apparently irrelevant for proper functioning of the enzyme. Although the wild type 5-aminolevulinate synthase and the circularly permuted variants appear to have similar, predicted overall tertiary structures, they exhibit differences in the arrangement of the secondary structure elements and in the cofactor-binding site environment. Taken together, the data lead us to propose that the 5-aminolevulinate synthase overall structure can be reached through multiple or alternative folding pathways.     

Functional asymmetry for the active sites of linked 5-aminolevulinate synthase and 8-amino-7-oxononanoate synthase

5-Aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS) and 8-amino-7-oxononanoate synthase (AONS) are homodimeric members of the α-oxoamine synthase family of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzymes. Previously, linking two ALAS subunits into a single polypeptide chain dimer yielded an enzyme (ALAS/ALAS) with a significantly greater turnover number than that of wild-type ALAS. To examine the contribution of each active site to the enzymatic activity of ALAS/ALAS, the catalytic lysine, which also covalently binds the PLP cofactor, was substituted with alanine in one of the active sites. Albeit the chemical rate for the pre-steady-state burst of ALA formation was identical in both active sites of ALAS/ALAS, the k(cat) values of the variants differed significantly (4.4±0.2 vs. 21.6±0.7 min(-1)) depending on which of the two active sites harbored the mutation. We propose that the functional asymmetry for the active sites of ALAS/ALAS stems from linking the enzyme subunits and the introduced intermolecular strain alters the protein conformational flexibility and rates of product release. Moreover, active site functional asymmetry extends to chimeric ALAS/AONS proteins, which while having a different oligomeric state, exhibit different rates of product release from the two ALAS and two AONS active sites due to the created intermolecular strain.     

Circular permutation of 5-aminolevulinate synthase as a tool to evaluate folding, structure and function.

5-Aminolevulinate synthase, a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzyme, catalyzes the condensation of glycine with succinyl-coenzyme A to yield aminolevulinate, carbon dioxide and CoA. This reaction corresponds to the first and regulatory step of the mammalian heme biosynthetic pathway. Mutations in the erythroid aminolevulinate synthase gene are associated with X-linked sideroblastic anemia, an erythropoietic disorder characterized by the presence of hypochromic-microcytic erythrocytes in peripheral blood and ring sideroblasts in bone marrow. In the past five years, transient kinetic studies in conjunction with three-dimensional structure models and engineered variants of aminolevulinate synthase have been instrumental in understanding the individual steps of the catalytic mechanism of aminolevulinate synthase. The mechanism of folding, assembly of the two subunits into a functional, dimeric holoenzyme has been recently explored in this laboratory using circular permutation of aminolevulinate synthase.