Endurance of simulated winter conditions by age-0 walleye pollock: effects of body size, water temperature and energy stores

Survival of age-0 walleye pollock Theragra chalcogramma in the absence of food followed simple bioenergetic models, with large body size, high initial condition, and cold temperatures all increasing survival rates. High survival after >200 days at cold temperatures (<3·0° C) indicated extended tolerance of extreme cold, as long as sufficient body size and condition are attained during the summer growth period. Analysis of body constituents demonstrated a substantial increase in tissue water and depletion of lipid during starvation. Survivors had significantly higher lipid stores than mortalities, and larger fish had higher levels of lipid than smaller fish among experimental survivors, laboratory fish that were never starved, and wild fish. Fish returned to warm temperatures and high rations following 205 days of food deprivation displayed nearly complete recovery, with rapid increases in length, weight, and condition and minimal mortality (6·8%) during the subsequent 3 months. Age-0 walleye pollock collected in September in the Bering Sea were substantially smaller and generally had lower lipid levels than fish used in laboratory starvation experiments, suggesting they are susceptible to size- and condition-dependent mortality during the winter. The results are interpreted with respect to field distributions of age-0 walleye pollock, overwinter survival, and synergistic effects of food and temperature under varying models of climate change.     

Population ecology of pike-cichlid, Crenicichla lepidota, in two streams of the Brazilian Pampa subject to a severe drought

Scales were valid for age determination of pike-cichlid Crenicichla lepidota Heckel in two Brazilian streams, since, for every age-class, annual rings (annuli) were formed once a year, in August. Back-calculated Jengths-for-age coincided with those obtained by inspecting the monthly length-frequency distributions. Only 11 reproductive females were captured (length range 9.6–16 cm, age 1+ and 2 + ) and their fecundity ( F ) increased with fish length ( L ) according to: F= 2.4027 L^2.3631. Average annual density and biomass in four localities of Zanga do Campus were 2194, 1676, 1824 and 1071 individuals ha⁻¹ and 17.2, 12.1, 13.8 and 18.7 kg ha⁻¹and about 1000 individuals ha⁻¹ and 8.5 kg ha⁻¹ in three combined sites of Zanga do Barbará. The annual production ranged between 18.5 and 32.7 kg ha⁻¹ a ⁻¹ in the first stream and 8.7 kg ha ⁻¹a ⁻¹ in the other. Feeding tactics differed between streams and age-classes (0+ v . 1+/2+). In winter, the 0+ age-class in Zanga do Campus fed mainly upon Ephemeroptera (Baetidae) but in other months also fed on zooplankton. In winter, these age-classes in Zanga do Barbara preyed upon benthic species but the contribution of different taxa varied between months. In January, these fish preyed exclusively upon Chydoridae and fish. The effects of a severe drought (November-February) upon these parameters are discussed.     

Point pattern analysis of Phyllostachys bissetti ramet population in West China Rainy Area

In this paper, point pattern analysis was conducted to study the spatial distribution of Phyllostachys bissetii ramet population and the spatial association between different age-class P. bissetii ramet populations in West China Rainy Area. The ramet population had a clumped distribution at the scale 0-0.32 m, a regular distribution at the scale 0.64-4.48 m, and a random distribution at the scale > 4.48 m. Different age-class ramet populations mainly had a random distribution at the scale 0-8.00 m, though a slight difference was observed among different age-classes. The spatial association between age-class I and age-classes II and III at the scale 1.76 - 4.16 m and 0.32-4.16 m approached to or reached to negative, respectively, while the spatial association between age-classes I and IV at the scale 0.32-3.04 m was significantly negative, indicating that the spatial negative association between younger and elder ramet populations increased with enlarged age-class difference. The spatial pattern of P. bissetii ramet population and the spatial association between different age-class ramet populations were depended on spatial scale, ramet age, and environmental factors.     

山西霍山白桦种群不同龄级立木的点格局分析

以山西霍山地区的先锋树种之一白桦( Betula platyphylla)为研究对象,在霍山七里峪林场典型地段设置一个50 m×50 m的样方,应用点格局分析方法对其不同龄级(Ⅰ级、Ⅱ级、Ⅲ级和Ⅳ级)个体的分布格局及相互关系进行了研究.结果表明:(1)白桦种群不同龄级的个体间密度也不相同,中间龄级Ⅱ级(7 cm＜ DBH≤14 cm)和Ⅲ级(14 cm ＜DBH≤21 cm)的密度较大,幼龄和老龄个体密度小,年龄结构为衰退型;(2)除Ⅰ级(DBH≤7 cm)外,其余3个龄级集群分布特征比较明显,且随着龄级的增加,集群特征有更明显的趋势;(3)除Ⅰ级和Ⅱ级、Ⅱ级和Ⅲ级、Ⅱ级和Ⅳ级(DBH ＞21 cm)之外,其余龄级间基本都是小尺度下负关联,并随尺度的增大关联性逐渐变得不显著.     

华西雨屏区白夹竹分株种群的点格局分析

采用点格局分析方法对华西雨屏区白夹竹分株种群的分布格局以及不同龄级分株之间的相互关系进行分析.结果表明：白夹竹分株种群在0～0.32 m空间尺度上呈集群分布,0.64～4.48 m空间尺度上呈均匀分布,>4.48 m空间尺度上呈随机分布.各龄级分株种群在0～8.00 m空间尺度上主要呈随机分布,龄级间略有差别.其中,Ⅰ龄级与Ⅱ、Ⅲ龄级分别在1.76～4.16 m、0.32～4.16 m尺度上接近或达到空间负关联,与Ⅳ龄级在0.32～3.04 m尺度上呈显著空间负关联,表现为随着龄级差距的加大,幼龄分株与高龄级分株的空间负关联增加.白夹竹分株种群的空间格局及不同龄级分株之间的相互关系由尺度、分株龄级及环境因素共同决定.     

不同pH条件下5种臂尾轮虫（Brachionus）的生殖代价

研究了5种臂尾轮虫(萼花臂尾轮虫、方形臂尾轮虫、壶状臂尾轮虫、十指臂尾轮虫和角突臂尾轮虫)在不同pH条件下(pH 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)当前繁殖(mx)与未来存活(lx 1)、未来生殖(mx 1)和残余生殖价(V*x)的相关关系.结果表明,5种臂尾轮虫存活代价的相关系数在初始几个日龄组表现为正相关或负相关,在随后的大部分日龄组中,均表现为负相关,直至整个生命周期.相对于存活代价,5种臂尾轮虫繁殖代价和残余生殖代价的相关系数的变化幅度较大,但整体趋势仍就是大部分呈现负相关.因此可以推断,轮虫在不同pH条件下存在存活代价、繁殖代价和残余生殖代价.mx与lx 1对日龄组的回归分析有100%回归关系显著,mx与mx 1有97%回归关系显著,而mx与V*x有93%回归关系显著.因此推断,轮虫在不同pH条件下存活代价、繁殖代价和残余生殖代价的负相关性随着日龄组的增加而逐步增加.结果还发现,某些种类的轮虫(方形臂尾轮虫、壶状臂尾轮虫和十指臂尾轮虫)在胁迫的pH(酸性或碱性)条件下,其存活代价、繁殖代价和残余生殖代价较适宜pH(中性)条件下更为显著.     

Point pattern analysis of different age-classes of Larix principis-rupprechtii in Luya Mountain Reserve, Shanxi Province, China

Larix principis-rupprechtii forest is an important vegetation formation and has a large distribution area in Luya Mountain Reserve,China.Spatial pattern analysis on individual trees in different age-classes of Larix principisrupprechtii was made in this paper.Here,we employed the technique of point pattern analysis,which could analyze patterns under all scales along a gradient.It was based on spatial mapped points of individual distribution.The results of this study showed that the densities of the five age-classes varied in the order:age-class 3＞age-class 4＞age-class 5＞age-class 2＞age-class 1.Although age-classes 1 and 2 have much fewer individuals than other three age-classes do,the population was stable at present.However,it would be necessary to take some measures for improving population regeneration for a long-time view.The individuals of all age-classes focused on clumping distribution in space;however,their distribution pattern varied with the change of scale.This mainly depended on biological features of Larix principis-rupprechtii and forest environments,but it also meant that the scale was an important factor in controlling spatial distribution pattern of tree individuals.The feature of clumping distribution became more significant with the increase of age.The relationships between individuals in different age-classes were almost all significantly correlated with each other.These associations became more significant within the older age-classes.This suggested that the individuals of different age-classes were interdistributed,by which the population could get benefits in resource utilization.The technique of point pattern analysis is effective and easy to be used in species pattern study.Its results are more closer to the reality,especially for community structure.     

北京松山自然保护区天然油松林不同龄级立木的空间点格局

采用点格局分析法对油松不同龄级个体的分布格局及其相互关系进行了研究.结果表明,油松不同龄级密度差异较大,高龄级密度较大（龄级Ⅰ密度为15 株·hm^-2,龄级Ⅲ密度为924 株·hm^-2）.油松各龄级的分布格局以及龄级间的空间关联与尺度（40 m内）密切相关,在小尺度上油松各龄级趋于聚集分布,龄级间有较强的相关关联;当空间尺度大于临界值（30 m或40 m）时,油松各龄级趋于随机分布,龄级间的空间关联性减弱.     

Point pattern analysis of different age-classes of Larix principis-rupprechtii in Luya Mountain Reserve, Shanxi Province, China

Larix principis-rupprechtii forest is an important vegetation formation and has a large distribution area in Luya Mountain Reserve, China. Spatial pattern analysis on individual trees in different age-classes of Larix principis-rupprechtii was made in this paper. Here, we employed the technique of point pattern analysis, which could analyze patterns under all scales along a gradient. It was based on spatial mapped points of individual distribution. The results of this study showed that the densities of the five age-classes varied in the order: age-class 3 > age-class 4 > age-class 5 > age-class 2 > age-class 1. Although age-classes 1 and 2 have much fewer individuals than other three age-classes do, the population was stable at present. However, it would be necessary to take some measures for improving population regeneration for a long-time view. The individuals of all age-classes focused on clumping distribution in space; however, their distribution pattern varied with the change of scale. This mainly depended on biological features of Larix principis-rupprechtii and forest environments, but it also meant that the scale was an important factor in controlling spatial distribution pattern of tree individuals. The feature of clumping distribution became more significant with the increase of age. The relationships between individuals in different age-classes were almost all significantly correlated with each other. These associations became more significant within the older age-classes. This suggested that the individuals of different age-classes were interdistributed, by which the population could get benefits in resource utilization. The technique of point pattern analysis is effective and easy to be used in species pattern study. Its results are more closer to the reality, especially for community structure. Translated from Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2004, 24(1): 35–40 [译自: 生态学报]     

Convergence of genetic compositions assuming infinite population-size and overlapping generations

Summary The assumptions for the model treated in this paper are based on a population of hypothetically infinite size, which has reached its optimum density within a limited habitat. The aim has been to derive sufficient conditions for the genetic composition of a population to converge to a limit if generations overlap and time is measured in discrete intervals. Trivially the genetic composition does not change if at the starting point of time the compositions within all age-classes are the same; otherwise global convergence of the age-class distributions implies uniform convergence of the genetic compositions within the single age-classes if mating takes place between at least two ageclasses, or within the first age-class only. Excluding age-class 1 mating within one age-class only results in periodical change of genetic compositions.     

Behavioural Correlates of Female Social Status and Birth Mass of Male and Female Calves in Reindeer

In polygyny, male breeding success depends more than female success on body size, and male birth mass may therefore be more strongly correlated with mother's social dominance status. Among female reindeer, Rangifer tarandus, the rate at which a female took over winter feeding craters from conspecifics depended on rank and the mass loss decreased with increasing rank. Birth mass of male calves depended on mother's social rank, but that of female calves did not. Male foetuses appeared to be more effective than females to utilize resources associated with mother's phenotypical superiority.     

Mass-dependence in the predation risk of unequal competitors; some models

Foragers can monitor their survival through the size of body reserves in a starvation/predation risk trade-off. Energy reserves reduce the risk of energetic shortfall, while survival will be maximised at intermediate reserve levels when there is a cost of carrying mass loads. The size of reserves that will maximise survival may not be identical for unequal competitors, when unequal access to resources will affect the costs and benefits of energy reserves. Here, I evaluate the effect of competitive ability (dominance) for the mass-dependence in predation risk and how it is affected by (1) attack rate (attack rate effect), (2) distance to the emergence of an unconcealed predator attack (attack distance effect) and (3) distance to cover (cover distance effect). This general model is illustrated by empirical data for parameters specific for birds. The effect of competitive ability for the mass-dependence in predation risk is ambiguous and depends on how rank is mediated into mass-dependent predation risk. Dominants pay a lower cost in predation risk for mass loads than sub-ordinates when competitive ability entails that they feed closer to cover (cover distance effect) and when the exposure to attacks and attack rate is lower than for sub-ordinates (attack rate effect) . In contrast, a shorter distance to the emergence of an unconcealed attack (attack distance effect) implies a lower increase in predation risk with mass for sub-ordinates. As a consequence of how the cost of mass load varies with conditions there is no unambiguous relationship for how predation risk can be traded off for starvation risk for individuals with different competitive ability.     

Large-scale synchrony and inter-annual variability in roach recruitment in the Rhône River: the relative role of climatic factors and density-dependent processes

1. We report patterns of temporal variation in the recruitment of roach ( Rutilus rutilus ). The data consist of the annual abundance of the first 2 year-classes, 0+ and 1+ fish, at four sites in the Rhône River (France) between 1987 and 1997. Over this 11-year period both 0+ and 1+ fish fluctuated strongly.
2. Cross-correlation indicated high spatial synchrony in 0+ dynamics, although correlations among sites in 1+ dynamics were weaker. No clear pattern was apparent in the relationship between the level of synchrony and distance between pairs of sites.
3. The spatial synchrony in 0+ fish could be attributable to large-scale variations in weather, influencing water temperature. Total body length of 0+ roach was correlated with water temperature (expressed in degree-days over 12 °C), and water temperature was the main factor explaining inter-annual variation in 0+ cohort size. Monthly variation in abiotic factors (measured by standard deviation in water temperature and discharge) did not influence 0+ fluctuations. Correlations with June water temperature suggest that year-class strength was mainly determined by abiotic factors during the first few months of life.
4. The absence of spatial synchrony in 1+ fluctuations suggests little correlation between survival and abiotic conditions during the first year of life, other factors influencing survival.
5. Survival in the first year was density-dependent. Intraspecific competition within the 0+ cohort could thus influence the fluctuations in recruitment to older age-classes.
6. The implications of age- or stage-dependent synchrony in temporal variation for species with complex life histories are discussed. Studying spatial synchrony for the different life history stages could enhance our understanding of the population dynamics of spatially structured species.     

Age-related differences in social grooming among adult female Japanese monkeys ( Macaca fuscata)

The present study investigated the influence of dominance rank in combination with kinship on age-related differences in social grooming among adult females in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). Eighty-three adult females were divided into six sub-groups according to age-class (younger: 5–9 years old; middle: 10–14 years old; older: 15–22 years old) and dominance rank (high and low rank). The ratio of the number of unrelated females that each female groomed to the total number of available unrelated females and grooming bouts which she gave to unrelated females decreased with increasing age for both high- and low-ranking females, whereas age did not appear to affect corresponding values for related females. On the other hand, compared with low-ranking females, high-ranking females of all age-classes received grooming more often from a larger number of unrelated females. Moreover, older females of low rank received grooming less often from a smaller number of unrelated females than younger females of low rank. These results indicate that with increasing age females are more likely to concentrate on related females when they have grooming interactions with other females. This tendency seems to be more apparent for low-ranking females. Moreover, the present findings also indicate that older high-ranking females could maintain their social attractiveness as high as younger high-ranking females.     

Habitat preferences of European grayling in a medium size stream, the Ain river, France

The three grayling Thymallus thymallus age-classes had strong preferences for their local habitat in the Ain river. All age-classes preferred high water velocities between 70 and 110 cm s^-1, confirming that grayling is a typical rheophilic species. An important intraspecific segregation regarding depth occurred, as large individuals preferred deeper water than small ones (optimal ranges=50–60, 80–120 and 100–140 cm for 0+, 1+ and adults respectively). The three age-classes had similar preferences for small substratum articles, with optimal values between 0·5 and 16·0 mm. Preference curves were generally comparable between the two sites, despite important differences in habitat availability. It is emphasized that grayling needs various habitat conditions to achieve its entire life cycle. The increasing scarcity of this species underlines the urgency of protecting lotic habitat integrity and diversity.     

五鹿山白皮松林不同龄级立木的点格局分析

白皮松是五鹿山自然保护区的重要保护植物。本文采用能够分析各种尺度下空间格局的分析方法—点格局分析法,以山西五鹿山自然保护区白皮松种群个体在空间分布的点图坐标为基础,对其进行了研究,结果表明：五鹿山白皮松不同龄级密度差异较大,中间龄级密度较大;6个龄级集群分布不明显,且随着龄级的增加集群分布特征逐渐减弱更加趋向于随机分布;龄级1和龄级2之间呈显著正关联,有利于种群的发展,其余各龄级之间在小尺度上关联性强,随着尺度的增大关联性减弱,说明龄级间的关联性与尺度密切相关。     

Interannual variation in the breeding biology of the Antarctic prion Pachyptila desolata at Bird Island, South Georgia

Interannual variation in aspects of the breeding biology of Antarctic prions was studied for three summers (1989–1992) at Bird island, South Georgia. Egg size, mass and incubation period remained constant. Laying, hatching and fledging were significantly delayed and less synchronous in 1991/92 (range of laying dates 51 days compared to 10–15 days in the two other seasons). This was due to an unusually cold and protracted winter, with ice blocking burrows into the spring, restricting availability of nest sites. Brooding lasted longer in 1991/92 but the overall fledging period was unchanged. Skeletal growth rates did not vary amongst years; growth in mass was slower in 1989/90 but fledging mass was similar in all three years. In 1989/90 and 1991/ 92 later hatched chicks grew (in mass) faster. The survival of chicks from hatching to fledging did not vary amongst years or with hatching date. Feeding frequency was similar between years, once allowance had been made for starlit nights. Thus late and asynchronous breeding in 1991/92 did not result in reduced breeding success either through predation or starvation.
Crustaceans formed 98–99% of the mass of the identifiable portion of regurgitated food samples. Significant annual variation was found within these crustaceans with the presence of krill (least in 1990/91) being inversely related to that of amphipods and copepods. There was no relationship between diet composition and chick growth or survival. Other seabird species, lacking the morphological specialization for feeding on copepods and amphipods, had very low breeding success in 1990/91, when krill was scarce.     

How many juvenile Teal Anas crecca reach the wintering grounds? Flyway-scale survival rate inferred from wing age-ratios

Autumn postnuptial migration is critical in the dabbling duck annual cycle, when first-year birds in particular suffer high losses to natural and hunting mortality. Mortality rates in this age-class are generally unknown in Europe where winter ringing predominates. We used data from large-scale wing collections from hunters in Finland, Denmark and France to test the prediction that juvenile proportions among killed Teal (Anas crecca) would decline with distance along the flyway. As expected, this proportion decreased from 89% in Northern Finland to 58% in Western France. Potential biases linked with age determination from the wings, differential migration of age-classes, relative susceptibility to different forms hunting and gradual improvement of juvenile survival as they learn to avoid hunters could not explain the observed decline of juveniles in the shot population. This pattern was therefore considered to be genuine, the result of the cumulative depletion of first-years along the flyway, likely through hunting. On this assumption, combined with known adult monthly survival rates during August–November (94.2%), monthly juvenile survival rate was estimated at 52.8%, i.e. 14.7% (range 13.9–15.4% based on extreme values of adult survival) amongst Scandinavian juveniles reaching wintering quarters in Western France. Despite lack of precision in such estimates based on relative proportions, there is little doubt about the magnitude of autumn juvenile mortality and its consequences for the population dynamics of Teal. Lack of correlations between annual proportions of juveniles in the hunting bag and an index of Teal breeding success in Finland may result from such high and variable inter-annual mortality.     

Evolutionarily stable age at first reproduction in a density-dependent model.

We develop a new model of life history evolution to investigate the evolution of age at first reproduction. Density dependence is taken into account. For a given "species", age of maturity, offspring survival, immature survival, adult survival, fecundity, immature age-classes entering in competition with adults and immature competitive ability are traits adjustable by natural selection, and constitute a particular strategy. On the contrary, the type of intraspecific competition (scramble or contest), strength of competition and inherent net reproductive rate Ro(inh) are fixed (specific) characteristics. As a consequence of fixing Ro(inh), the evolution of any trait will affect trade-offs between others. Evolutionarily stable strategies are determined numerically by using the mathematical concept of Lyapunov exponents. Altogether, we consider 960 different hypothetical "species" (i.e. different combinations of fixed traits). Corresponding ESSs are analyzed with respect to their age at first reproduction, adult survival and immature competitive ability components. They appear to be gathered in three groups. One is intuitive and characterized by a reduction of immature competitive ability and a correlation of age of maturity with adult survival; populations reach mainly equilibria. The two other groups respectively include "species" with low age of maturity but high adult survival, and "species" close to semelparity with delayed maturity; immature competitive ability may not be minimized, and populations possibly exhibit complex dynamics. In conclusion, the hypothesis that the evolution of a demographic parameter modifies trade-offs between others turns out to have important consequences. We argue that life history theory cannot ignore the source and mode-of-operation of density dependence and must regard potential short-term instability as essential.     

Effects of Pluronic F-68 on Tetrahymena cells: protection against chemical and physical stress and prolongation of survival under toxic conditions

The effects of the non-ionic surfactant Pluronic F-68 (0.01% w/v) on Tetrahymena cells have been studied. A marked protection against chemical and physical stress was observed. The chemical stress effects were studied in cells suspended in buffer (starvation) or in buffers with added ingredients from a chemically defined medium (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, trace metal ions). The physical stress was due to mechanical stress or hyperthermia. The data show that Pluronic: (a) prolongs the survival of low concentration cell suspensions during starvation; (b) prevents the cell death caused by low concentrations of Ca2+ (70 microM); (c) prolongs the survival of cells exposed to higher ion concentrations (10 mM Ca2+, or Na+ or K+); (d) postpones the death caused by trace metal ions like Zn2+, Fe3+ and, Cu2+; (e) protects cells from the death caused by shearing forces; and (f) prolongs the survival of cells exposed to hyperthermia (43 degrees C). The cellular survival is increased at reduced temperatures (e.g. 4 degrees C instead of 36 degrees C) and at increased cellular concentrations (e.g. 100 cells ml(-1) instead of 25 or 10 cells ml(-1)). There is no effect of pre-incubation with Pluronic. The protective effect of Pluronic towards Tetrahymena is observed for concentrations in the range from 0.001 to 0.1% w/v.