Negative Affect Mediates Effects of Psychological Stress on Disordered Eating in Young Chinese Women

Background

The bi-relationships between psychological stress, negative affect and disordered eating has been well studied in western culture, while tri-relationship among them, i.e. how some of those factors influence these bi-relationships, has rarely been studied. However, there has been little related study in the different Chinese culture. This study was conducted to investigate the bi-relationships and tri-relationship between psychological stress, negative affect, and disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in young Chinese women.

Methodology

A total of 245 young Chinese policewomen employed to carry out health and safety checks at the 2010 Shanghai World Expo were recruited in this study. The Chinese version of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10), Beck Depression Inventory Revised (BDI-II), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), and Eating Attitude Test (EAT-26) were administered to all participants.

Principal Findings

The total scores of PSS-10, BDI-II and BAI were all highly correlated with that of EAT-26. The PSS-10 score significantly correlated with both BDI-II and BAI scores. There was no statistically significant direct effect from perceived stress to disordered eating (–0.012, 95%CI: –.038∼0.006, p = 0.357), however, the indirect effects from PSS-10 via affect factors were statistically significant, e.g. the estimated mediation effects from PSS to EAT-26 via depression and anxiety were 0.036 (95%CI: 0.022∼0.044, p<0.001) and 0.015 (95%CI: 0.005∼0.023, p<0.01), respectively.

Conclusions

Perceived stress and negative affects of depression and anxiety were demonstrated to be strongly associated with disordered eating. Negative affect mediated the relationship between perceived stress and disordered eating. The findings suggest that effective interventions and preventative programmes for disordered eating should pay more attention to depression and anxiety among the young Chinese female population.     

Disordered eating attitude and associated factors among high school adolescents aged 12–19 years in Addis Ababa,Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study

Background

Eating disorders are very complex, frequently developed and have a public health impact on adolescents. Different studies revealed that eating disorders is a pressing public health problem among adolescents. Eating disorders may also lead to mortality due to their physiological sequelae. There is no previous study regarding disordered of eating attitude in Ethiopian adolescents. Therefore, this study aimed to assess prevalence of disordered eating attitude and its associated factors among adolescents in Addis Ababa high schools.

Methods

A school-based cross sectional study was conducted. Data were collected among 836 high school adolescents aged 12–19 years from May to June, 2015 in Addis Ababa city. The data were collected by self-administered questionnaire containing eating attitudes test-26 items (EAT-26) and socio-demographic factors. Binary logistic regression analysis was carried out to identify factors associated with disordered eating attitude. Both crude odds ratio and adjusted odds ratio were calculated to show the strength of association. In multivariable analysis, variables with a P value of <0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results

The prevalence of disordered eating attitude among adolescents was 8.6% [95% CI 4.9, 12.3]. Being female [AOR = 1.75, 95% CI 1.03, 3.00], Mother’s educational status (Primary [AOR = 0.28, 95% CI 0.11, 0.78], Certificate/diploma [AOR = 0.22, 95% CI 0.07, 0.58] and first degree and above [AOR = 0.16, 95% CI 0.07, 0.40]) were found to be significantly associated with disordered eating attitude.

Conclusion

The finding of this study revealed that a significant number of adolescents were susceptible to developing disordered eating attitude. Being female and Mothers’ education status were significantly associated with disordered eating attitude among adolescents. Provision of screening test for eating disorders focusing on female adolescents is highly recommended.

     

Reducing Dysfunctional Beliefs about Sleep Does Not Significantly Improve Insomnia in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

The present study examined to examine whether improvement of insomnia is mediated by a reduction in sleep-related dysfunctional beliefs through cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia. In total, 64 patients with chronic insomnia received cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia consisting of 6 biweekly individual treatment sessions of 50 minutes in length. Participants were asked to complete the Athens Insomnia Scale and the Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep scale both at the baseline and at the end of treatment. The results showed that although cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia greatly reduced individuals’ scores on both scales, the decrease in dysfunctional beliefs and attitudes about sleep with treatment did not seem to mediate improvement in insomnia. The findings suggest that sleep-related dysfunctional beliefs endorsed by patients with chronic insomnia may be attenuated by cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia, but changes in such beliefs are not likely to play a crucial role in reducing the severity of insomnia.     

Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in overweight youth

Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors appear to be quite common in youth, and overweight youth have been identified as a subset of the population at particularly high risk for endorsing such symptoms. Overweight and eating disorder (ED) symptomatology independently confer significant threats to one's physical and psychosocial health, showing strong links with body weight gain and risk for ED development. When concurrent, the risk for negative health outcomes may be compounded. The purpose of this article is to review the current state of the literature as it concerns disordered eating and its correlates in overweight children and adolescents. Extant literature on the prevalence, distribution, correlates, and etiology of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors (i.e., negative attitudes toward shape and weight, unhealthy weight control behaviors, and binge eating) in overweight youth is reviewed and consolidated in order to make assessment and treatment recommendations for healthcare providers. The current literature suggests that early detection of disordered eating in overweight youth should be a priority to provide appropriate intervention, thereby helping to slow the trajectory of weight gain and prevent or reduce the long-term negative consequences associated with both conditions. Future research should focus on explicating developmental pathways, and on developing novel prevention and treatment interventions for overweight youth exhibiting disordered eating patterns.     

Behavioral Weight Control for Overweight Adolescents Initiated in Primary Care

Objective: This study evaluates the post-treatment and short-term follow-up efficacy of, as well as participant satisfaction for, a 4-month behavioral weight control program for overweight adolescents initiated in a primary care setting and extended through telephone and mail contact. Research Methods and Procedures: 44 overweight adolescents were randomly assigned to either a multiple component behavioral weight control intervention (Healthy Habits [HH]; n = 23) or a single session of physician weight counseling (typical care [TC]; n = 21). Weight, height, dietary intake, physical activity, sedentary behavior, and problematic weight-related and eating behaviors and beliefs were assessed before treatment, after the 4-month treatment, and at 3-month follow-up. Participant satisfaction and behavioral skills use were measured. Results: HH adolescents evidenced better change in body mass index z scores to post-treatment than TC adolescents. Body mass index z scores changed similarly in the conditions from post-treatment through follow-up. Behavioral skills use was higher among HH than TC adolescents, and higher behavioral skills use was related to better weight outcome. Energy intake, percentage of calories from fat, physical activity, sedentary behavior, and problematic weight-related or eating behaviors/beliefs did not differ by condition or significantly change over time independent of condition. The behavioral intervention evidenced good feasibility and participant satisfaction. Discussion: A telephone- and mail-based behavioral intervention initiated in primary care resulted in better weight control efficacy relative to care typically provided to overweight adolescents. Innovative and efficacious weight control intervention delivery approaches could decrease provider and participant burden and improve dissemination to the increasing population of overweight youth.     

Beliefs About Weight Gain and Attitudes Toward Relapse in a Sample of Women and Men with Obesity

Objective : The purpose of this study was to examine beliefs regarding reasons for weight gain, likely responses to weight loss relapse, notions of reasonable weight loss, and correlations between beliefs and attitudes in a large nonclinical sample of men and women with obesity. Research Methods and Procedures : Participants were 3,394 white women (n= 1,674) and men (n = 1,720) with obesity who had responded to a survey about body image and eating behaviors conducted by Consumer Reports magazine. Results : Women and men indicated that the most important reasons for their weight gain were lack of exercise and enjoying eating; the least important reason was a need to avoid social or sexual situations. Both groups reported that their most likely response to relapse is to start watching food intake, whereas their least likely response is to ask a friend, spouse, or family member for help. Women rated depression, stress, low self-esteem, and need to avoid situations as more important reasons for their weight gain than did men, and women were more likely to feel terrible and regain as a response to relapse. There was no relationship between an individual's beliefs about weight gain, responses to relapse, or notions of reasonable weight loss. Discussion : Implications of these findings for the treatment of obesity are discussed.     

Internalization of weight bias: Implications for binge eating and emotional well-being

Objective: This study examined the relationship between internalization of negative weight‐based stereotypes and indices of eating behaviors and emotional well‐being in a sample of overweight and obese women. Research Method and Procedures: The sample was comprised of 1013 women who belonged to a national, non‐profit weight loss organization. Participants completed an on‐line battery of self‐report questionnaires measuring frequency of weight stigmatization and coping responses to deal with bias and symptoms of depression and self‐esteem, attitudes about weight and obesity, and binge eating behaviors. In addition, participants were asked to list the most common weight‐based stereotypes and whether they believed them to be true or false. Results: Participants who believed that weight‐based stereotypes were true reported more frequent binge eating and refusal to diet in response to stigma experiences compared with those who reported stereotypes to be false. The degree to which participants believed stereotypes to be true or false was not related to types or amount of stigma experiences reported, self‐esteem, depression, or attitudes toward obese persons. In addition, engaging in weight loss strategies as a response to bias was not predicted by stereotype beliefs or by actual stigma experiences, regardless of the amount or types of stigma reported. Discussion: These findings suggest that obese individuals who internalize negative weight‐based stereotypes may be particularly vulnerable to the negative impact of stigma on eating behaviors and also challenge the notion that stigma may motivate obese individuals to engage in efforts to lose weight. This study highlights a new area of research that warrants attention to better understand weight stigma and its potential consequences for health.     

Effect of Ethnicity and Geographical Location on Body Weight,Dietary Restraint,and Abnormal Eating Attitudes

Previous studies have examined the effect of ethnicity on obesity, concerns about shape and weight, and attitudes about eating. We hypothesized that geographical location would also influence these variables, and that students growing up in the northern part of the United States and attending northern colleges would differ from students from the South. To examine this, we studied a random sample of 275 African-Americans (AA) and 224 white college students in the entering class of two northern colleges (University of Pittsburgh or University of Massachusetts) or two southern colleges (Augusta or Paine College). All subjects were weighed and completed the Revised Restraint Scale and the EAT-26. AA women were heavier than white women, with no differences due to geographical location. Despite being thinner, white women reported more dietary restraint than AA women. This difference between AA and white women was apparent in both northern and southern college students. In contrast, geographical location was the strongest determinant of bulimic attitudes; both men and women at northern colleges reported higher bulimia scores than those at southern schools. Thus ethnicity appears to be a major determinant of body weight and attitudes about shape and dieting, whereas geographical location appears to exert greater influence on bulimic attitudes.     

What Do Current and Potential Australian Dog Owners Believe about Shelter Practices and Shelter Dogs?

ABSTRACT

Many displaced dogs are unable to find new homes in developed countries, including Australia, each year, even though demand for dogs in general remains high. Understanding community attitudes towards shelter dogs and beliefs about common shelter practices, particularly behavioral assessments conducted by shelters, may help shed light on this issue. To investigate what current and potential dog owners think about shelter dogs, we used an internet-based survey to probe the beliefs and attitudes of 1647 self-selected adult participants, using the online Public Attitudes towards Animal Welfare Shelter-Dogs (PAAWS-D) Survey. Over 80% of the sample indicated they would be likely or very likely to obtain a future pet dog from an animal shelter or rescue organization. Nonetheless, one-third of the participants believed that adult shelter dogs often have behavioral problems. Most participants were aware of routine shelter procedures, such as health and behavioral checks, and the consequences of a dog failing these. Moreover, most participants considered the assessment of shelter dog behavior, using scientific methods, for adoption suitability important. These findings may be used to inform strategies to increase the number of shelter dogs adopted, by clarifying the content of tests used to assess adoption suitability. This could be complemented by daily training and rehabilitation programs to improve shelter dog behavior, increase adoptability, and enhance public perceptions of shelter dogs.     

Dog Obesity: Can Dog Caregivers' (Owners') Feeding and Exercise Intentions and Behaviors Be Predicted From Attitudes?

Dog obesity is a common nutritional disorder affecting up to 40% of the companion animal (pet) dog population in Australia and other developed nations. A clear understanding of factors determining relevant caregiver (owner) behaviors underpins effective treatment for this disorder. The theory of planned behavior can be used to understand factors contributing to human behavior. This article describes research informed by this theory. The research examined relationships between owners' behavioral beliefs and barriers, normative beliefs and perceptions of control, owners' feeding and exercise behaviors toward their dogs, and the body condition scores (BCSs) of dogs. The study recruited a sample of 182 dog and owner dyads. The researcher independently assessed BCSs. Owners completed a questionnaire measuring relevant feeding and exercise beliefs and behaviors. This revealed significant correlations between many psychological variables and BCSs and between psychological variables and specific owner behaviors: for example, the relationship of low levels of intentions to feed appropriately to ambivalent beliefs toward feeding appropriately and low perceived control. Careful consideration of the specific variables identified will permit the development of more effective interventions.     

Eating Disorder or Disordered Eating? Non‐normative Eating Patterns in Obese Individuals

Binge eating disorder (BED) and night eating syndrome (NES) are putative eating disorders frequently seen in obese individuals. Data suggest that BED fulfills criteria for a mental disorder. Criteria for NES are evolving but at present do not require distress or functional impairment. It remains unclear whether BED and NES, as they are currently defined, are optimally useful for characterizing distinct patient subgroups. We propose that a distinction be made between “eating disorders” and “non‐normative” eating patterns without associated distress or impairment. Although non‐normative eating patterns may not be considered mental disorders, they may be very important in terms of their impact on body weight and health. More precise behavioral and metabolic characterization of subgroups with eating disorders and non‐normative eating behaviors has important implications for understanding the etiology, pathophysiology, and treatment of obesity. Ultimately, better understanding of the many pathways to increased energy intake may lead to targeted strategies for prevention of overweight and obesity in at‐risk individuals and populations.     

Purging behaviors relate to impaired subjective sleep quality in female patients with anorexia nervosa: a prospective observational study

Background

We examined how purging behaviors relate to subjective sleep quality and sleep patterns and how symptoms of disordered eating behaviors relate to global sleep quality in female patients with anorexia nervosa (AN).

Methods

Participants were new consecutive female inpatients with a primary diagnosis of AN admitted to the Department of Psychosomatic Medicine at Kohnodai Hospital between June 26 and December 25, 2015. We recorded patients’ habitual eating behaviors, laxative overuse, or uretic misuse, and administered the Japanese versions of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI-J) and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Raw PSQI-J data were used to determine sleep patterns (sleep-onset time, wake-up time, and sleep duration). To examine how purging behaviors related to sleep quality, we compared variables between AN restricting type (ANr) and AN binge-eating/purging type (ANbp). Spearman’s rank correlation analysis was used to examine which potential factors influence global PSQI-J score.

Results

Participants were 20 patients, of whom 12 had ANbp. Two ANr patients (25%) had global PSQI-J scores greater than 5, compared to 9 ANbp patients (75%; P < 0.05). Circadian rhythm disruption and abnormal sleep duration were significantly greater in ANbp patients than in ANr patients (P < 0.05). Global PSQI-J was significantly correlated with a diagnosis of ANbp (ρ = 0.525; P < 0.05), vomiting (ρ = 0.561; P < 0.05), and duration of illness (ρ = 0.536; P < 0.05).

Conclusions

ANbp patients had worse global sleep quality and greater disrupted sleep than did ANr patients. This suggests that treatments focusing on sleep would be useful, especially for ANbp patients. Furthermore, vomiting and duration of illness should be considered essential factors related to impaired global sleep quality.

Trial registration

Not applicable.

     

Chronic Inhibition,Self-Control and Eating Behavior: Test of a ‘Resource Depletion’ Model

The current research tested the hypothesis that individuals engaged in long-term efforts to limit food intake (e.g., individuals with high eating restraint) would have reduced capacity to regulate eating when self-control resources are limited. In the current research, body mass index (BMI) was used as a proxy for eating restraint based on the assumption that individuals with high BMI would have elevated levels of chronic eating restraint. A preliminary study (Study 1) aimed to provide evidence for the assumed relationship between eating restraint and BMI. Participants (N = 72) categorized into high or normal-range BMI groups completed the eating restraint scale. Consistent with the hypothesis, results revealed significantly higher scores on the weight fluctuation and concern for dieting subscales of the restraint scale among participants in the high BMI group compared to the normal-range BMI group. The main study (Study 2) aimed to test the hypothesized interactive effect of BMI and diminished self-control resources on eating behavior. Participants (N = 83) classified as having high or normal-range BMI were randomly allocated to receive a challenging counting task that depleted self-control resources (ego-depletion condition) or a non-depleting control task (no depletion condition). Participants then engaged in a second task in which required tasting and rating tempting cookies and candies. Amount of food consumed during the taste-and-rate task constituted the behavioral dependent measure. Regression analyses revealed a significant interaction effect of these variables on amount of food eaten in the taste-and-rate task. Individuals with high BMI had reduced capacity to regulate eating under conditions of self-control resource depletion as predicted. The interactive effects of BMI and self-control resource depletion on eating behavior were independent of trait self-control. Results extend knowledge of the role of self-control in regulating eating behavior and provide support for a limited-resource model of self-control.     

Association of the melanocortin 4 receptor gene rs17782313 polymorphism with rewarding value of food and eating behavior in Chilean children

Studies conducted in monozygotic and dizygotic twins have established a strong genetic component in eating behavior. Rare mutations and common variants of the melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) gene have been linked to obesity and eating behavior scores. However, few studies have assessed common variants in MC4R gene with the rewarding value of food in children. The objective of the study was to evaluate the association between the MC4R rs17782313 polymorphism with homeostatic and non-homeostatic eating behavior patterns in Chileans children. This is a cross-sectional study in 258 Chilean children (44 % female, 8–14 years old) showing a wide variation in BMI. Anthropometric measurements (weight, height, Z-score of BMI and waist circumference) were performed by standard procedures. Eating behavior was assessed using the Eating in Absence of Hunger Questionnaire (EAHQ), the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ), the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ), and the Food Reinforcement Value Questionnaire (FRVQ). Genotype of the rs17782313 nearby MC4R was determined by a Taqman assay. Association of the rs17782313 C allele with eating behavior was assessed using non-parametric tests. We found that children carrying the CC genotype have higher scores of food responsiveness (p value = 0.02). In obese girls, carriers of the C allele showed lower scores of satiety responsiveness (p value = 0.02) and higher scores of uncontrolled eating (p value = 0.01). Obese boys carrying the C allele showed lower rewarding value of food in relation to non-carriers. The rs17782313 C allele is associated with eating behavior traits that may predispose obese children to increased energy intake and obesity.     

The Association between Disturbed Eating Behavior and Socioeconomic Status: The Online Korean Adolescent Panel Survey (OnKAPS)

Background

A limited amount of research, primarily conducted in Western countries, has suggested that higher socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with higher risk of eating disorders (EDs). However, little is known about this association in Asian countries. We examined the association of SES with disturbed eating behavior (DEB) and related factors in Korean adolescents.

Subjects

A nationwide online panel survey was conducted in a sample of adolescents (n = 6,943, 49.9% girls). DEB was measured with the 26-item Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26). Participants who scored ≥20 on the EAT-26 were considered to have DEB. Participants’ SES was determined based on self-reported household economic status.

Results

The prevalence of DEB was 12.7%: 10.5% among boys and 14.8% among girls. Both boys and girls with DEB were more likely to perceive themselves as obese, experience higher levels of stress, and have lower academic achievement. The risk for DEB was significantly higher in boys of higher SES than in those of middle SES (OR = 1.45, 95%CI = 1.05–1.99 for high SES; OR = 5.16, 95%CI: 3.50–7.61 for highest SES). Among girls, higher risk of DEB was associated with the highest and lowest SES (OR = 1.52, 95%CI: 1.13–2.06 for lowest SES; OR = 2.22, 95%CI: 1.34–3.68 for highest SES).

Conclusions

Despite the lower prevalence of obesity in Korea compared with Western countries, the prevalence of DEB in Korean adolescents was high, especially among girls. Moreover, the association between SES and DEB followed a U-shaped curve for girls and a J-shaped curve for boys.     

Preventive attitudes,beliefs, and practices of physicians in fee-for-service and health maintenance organization settings.

To identify the self-reported differences in preventive practices, attitudes, and beliefs of physicians practicing in fee-for-service (FFS) and health maintenance organization (HMO) settings, we surveyed a 100% sample of primary care physicians practicing in a large, urban, closed-panel HMO and a random sample of physicians, in the same county, who were in an FFS practice. The FFS physicians were more likely to consider behavioral risk factors important than were HMO physicians, and they were more likely to ask their patients about behavioral risk factors. Fee-for-service physicians were more likely than HMO physicians to use continuing medical education courses to upgrade their skills in modifying behavioral risk factors. There was little difference in the self-reported proportion of patients with specific behavioral risks in the FFS and HMO practices. Also, both groups were comparable in their perception of their ability to do behavioral counseling and their perceived success in such counseling. We conclude that FFS physicians are more likely to have positive preventive beliefs, attitudes, and practices than are HMO physicians.     

地方认同视角下居民对农业文化遗产认知及保护态度——以福州茉莉花与茶文化系统为例

居民对农业文化遗产的认知态度影响其行为选择,并对农业文化遗产的保护及可持续发展具有重要意义。基于人文地理学及环境心理学领域的地方认同理论,选择历史认同、现实认同、情感认同及行为认同4个维度变量,通过问卷调查,以福州居民对全球重要农业文化遗产"福州茉莉花与茶文化系统"的认知及保护态度作为研究对象,并通过构建福州居民农业文化遗产认知及保护规律定量分析居民认知态度、保护行为与人口特征之间的关系。结果表明:(1)福州居民对茉莉花与茶文化系统的行为认同维度得分高于其他维度,且福州市民各维度得分均高于外来居民;(2)受访居民对农业文化遗产的地方认同与其年龄、受教育水平、收入水平及在福州居住时间长短的关系较为密切;(3)通过构建福州居民农业文化遗产认知及保护规律发现,福州居民对农业文化遗产的保护行为主要受其对该遗产项目认知态度的影响,与居民人口特征相关性较弱。拓展农业文化遗产领域的研究视角及方法,促进农业文化遗产地动态保护与可持续发展具有参考价值。     

Role of local culture,religion, and human attitudes in the conservation of sacred populations of a threatened ‘pest’ species

Indigenous belief systems and informal institutions that result in the conservation of wild species or sites exemplify biocultural conservation. The erosion of cultural beliefs and practices can have adverse, often severe, consequences for biodiversity. We explored the relationships among informal institutions, religion, and human attitudes toward sacred populations of a threatened, endemic species, Sclater’s monkey (Cercopithecus sclateri), in two communities in southeastern Nigeria. Due to habitat loss and hunting pressure across the species’ range, monkeys in these two sites live alongside people, raid farms and gardens, and are commonly viewed as pests. Using structured (n = 410) and semi-structured (n = 21) interviews, we examined factors influencing residents’ views of the monkeys, mechanisms affecting adherence to social taboos against harming monkeys, and implications for conservation. Our analyses revealed that most residents, particularly those from one community, women, and farmers, held negative opinions of the monkeys. Crop and garden raiding by monkeys had the most adverse effect on people’s attitudes. Although the adoption of Christianity weakened residents’ views regarding the no-killing taboos, continued adherence to the taboos was particularly influenced by supernatural retribution in one site and community disapproval in the other. Only one community widely conferred symbolic importance on the monkeys. Such site differences illustrate the value of local cultural understanding in conservation. Pre-intervention studies of this nature allow for the development of locally and culturally sensitive conservation programs, as well as better-informed assessments of what interventions are most likely to be effective.     

Features and Trajectories of Eating Behavior in Weight‐Loss Maintenance: Results from the German Weight Control Registry

Objective

Eating behaviors such as dietary restraint and disinhibition caused by emotional and external cues play a relevant role in weight‐loss maintenance.

Methods

Four hundred forty individuals with successful weight‐loss maintenance included in the prospective German Weight Control Registry completed the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Participants were categorized into the following two weight groups: stable weight trajectory (WS) (n = 280) and unstable weight trajectory (WUS) (n = 160) over the 2‐year assessment period.

Results

Those with successful weight‐loss maintenance had significantly higher scores on the restrained and emotional eating subscales compared with a general population (GP) sample. At baseline, the WS individuals had lower restrained, emotional, and external eating scores compared with the WUS individuals. Over the 2‐year follow‐up period, the trajectories of the restraint scores decreased in both groups but stayed elevated compared with the GP sample. Scores of the emotional and external eating subscales remained stable in the WS group but increased in the WUS group.

Conclusions

A certain degree of restraint seems to be necessary for successful weight‐loss maintenance; however, high emotional and external eating may counteract this effect, resulting in weight regain in the long run.     

The Influence of Social Environment: Behavior of Unrelated Adults Affects Future Juvenile Behaviors

Juveniles' behaviors are often influenced by the behaviors of conspecifics. Most experimental studies of the influence of conspecific behavior vary the social environment by the presence or absence of conspecifics or investigate the impact of the outcome of social encounters (winner/loser effects) but less frequently expose individuals to variation in behavioral phenotypes present in the social environment. Based on previous work showing that juveniles of the salamander Plethodon cinereus are likely to interact frequently with non‐parental adults, I hypothesized that territorial adults in the social environment alter the future behaviors of juveniles. I measured the intracohort social behaviors of juvenile salamanders collected from two geographic areas, Michigan (MI) and Virginia (VA), before and after housing with ostensibly territorial (VA) or non‐territorial (MI) adults. There were overall effects of adult territoriality and aggression on the behavior of juveniles. However, juveniles from populations in MI were especially susceptible to behavioral modification. Compared with behaviors prior to being housed with adults, MI juveniles increased investigatory and escape behaviors in juvenile–juvenile interactions after being housed with adults that displayed territorial behaviors and decreased investigatory and escape behaviors after being housed with non‐territorial adults. This study shows that not only is a specific behavior, territoriality of adult salamanders, a social environment that modifies future juvenile behaviors, but the effects of social environment may differ between populations.