The Important Bird Areas Programme in Africa: an outline

Bennun, L. & Fishpool, L. 2000. The Important Bird Areas Programme in Africa: an outline. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 150–153.

BirdLife International works to conserve the world's birds at the levels of species, sites and habitats. The Important Bird Areas (IBA) programme is a process of setting site-based priorities for birds based on information about species' distribution and numbers. The African IBA programme started in 1993, building on similar successful programmes in Europe and the Middle East. Important Bird Areas are selected according to internationally agreed criteria based upon the presence of globally threatened species, species of restricted range, biome-restricted species assemblages and concentrations of numbers.

In Africa, a continental directory of sites is scheduled for publication in 2000, and work is underway to identify and document IBAs across the continent and its associated islands. In 18 countries so far, the process of compiling information is being combined at a national level with strengthening the capacity for research and action, and building effective structures (especially NGO-Government linkages) for advocacy and action. The resulting inventories can be used in numerous ways to prioritise, inform and stimulate conservation action at local and national levels.     

Monitoring Important Bird Areas in Africa: Towards a Sustainable and Scaleable System

The need for effective global monitoring of biodiversity is clearer than ever, but our measurements remain patchy and inadequate. In the biodiversity-rich tropics, a central problem is the sustainability of monitoring schemes. Locally-based, participatory approaches show promise in overcoming this problem, but may not contribute effectively to monitoring at larger scales. BirdLife International’s framework for monitoring Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Africa is designed to be simple, robust and locally-grounded, but to produce scaleable results that can be compiled into national or regional indices. Focusing on key sites for bird conservation, identified according to standard criteria, the framework institutionalises monitoring in site management authorities and Site Support Groups (community-based organisations of local people working for conservation and sustainable development). A small, central monitoring unit co-ordinates the programme nationally, compiles, analyses and manages data, and provides feedback. ‘Basic’ monitoring (taking place at all sites) involves scoring of state, pressure and response trends using site information submitted on simple forms. ‘Detailed’ monitoring (taking place at a selected sub-set of sites) involves more intensive measurement of particular variables that relate to site management targets. IBA monitoring is now underway in at least 10 African countries, with implementation of the framework most advanced (thanks to a pilot project) in Kenya. The 2004 IBA monitoring report for Kenya provides extensive information on individual IBAs, plus indices for national trends in state, pressure and response, based on data from 49 out of 60 sites. The experience in Kenya shows that institutionalisation is vital, but takes considerable time and effort; that adequate co-ordination (including timely feedback) is key; and that participatory monitoring has many valuable benefits beyond the data collected. Further work is being undertaken to refine the process, improve its scientific underpinning, and strengthen the feedback loop from data and analysis to action on the ground.     

Important Bird Areas in Kenya

Bennun, L. & Njoroge, P. 2000. Important Bird Areas in Kenya. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 164–167.

The process of defining Important Bird Areas in Kenya has been underway since January 1995, with financial support from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Literature review has proceeded in parallel with field surveys, which are still ongoing. Some 65 globally Important Bird Areas have so far been identified, and this total is likely to increase. Sites were intitially selected using the criteria of threatened species (37 sites) and congregatory species (15 sites). Additional sites were then identified for biome-restricted and restricted-range species, using information from the Bird Atlas of Kenya; these sites must form part of a regional set. Threatened species sites are concentrated in forests (on the coastal strip, in the central highlands and in western Kenya) and papyrus swamps. Congregatory-species sites are concentrated along the Rift Valley and the coast. The remaining sites are concentrated in semi-arid areas to the immediate north and east of the central plateau, and in highland forest on each side of the Rift Valley. No IBAs have yet been identified in the flat, arid north-eastern sector of the country. A large number of sites require additional protection and/or improved management. Particular priorities include several papyrus IBAs around Lake Victoria, among them Lake Kanyaboli and Yala and Sare Swamps, grassland pockets in Mungatsi and Nambale, Western Province; the Kakamega, South Nandi and North Nandi Forests; the increasingly fragmented coastal forests, including Arabuko-Sokoke Forest; and the Taita Hills. Information on the IBA process and its results is being distributed to decision-makers through a high-level IBA Advisory council, with encouraging intitial results.     

Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society,the Important Bird Areas Programme and other projects

Nigussie. A.T. 2000. Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society, the Important Bird Areas Programme and other projects. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 181–182.

The BirdLife International Partner in Ethiopia is the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS), established in 1966. The aims of the society are mentioned and projects run by the EWNHS, within the framework of the ‘Conservation for Survival’ agenda, are described. These projects include the Important Bird Areas Project, the Environmental Education Support Publications, School's Environmental Education Project, Plant Locally and Nurture Trees project and The Indoor/Outdoors Activities project.     

Protected area gap analysis of important bird areas in Tanzania

Analyses of gaps in protected area (PA) coverage of species distributions have been carried out extensively for the past two decades, aiming to better locate new PAs and conserve species. In this study, progress to close gaps in the protection of the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) of Tanzania is assessed between 2002 and 2009, with a detailed GIS analysis from 2007 to 2009. Remaining gaps are ranked according to biological factors such as numbers of red list and restricted range avian species and social pressures such as human population, agriculture and density of the road network. Results show that there has been a 5.3% increase (7615.1 km²) in protection of IBAs between 2007 and 2009. Of the 27 remaining IBA protection gaps, three are of high, nine of medium and fifteen of low priority for action. The current IBA ‘gap area’ of 17,133.3 km² contains around 26% forest, 13% shrubland, 9% grassland, 36% wetland and 12% agricultural land. This analysis provides a simple template for defining where further action to protect remaining IBA sites in Tanzania would lead to enhanced conservation of avian biodiversity in that country and provides a methodology for analysis leading to conservation action elsewhere in Africa.     

Evaluating the effectiveness of conservation site networks under climate change: accounting for uncertainty

We forecasted potential impacts of climate change on the ability of a network of key sites for bird conservation (Important Bird Areas; IBAs) to provide suitable climate for 370 bird species of current conservation concern in two Asian biodiversity hotspots: the Eastern Himalaya and Lower Mekong. Comparable studies have largely not accounted for uncertainty, which may lead to inappropriate conclusions. We quantified the contribution of four sources of variation (choice of general circulation models, emission scenarios and species distribution modelling methods and variation in species distribution data) to uncertainty in forecasts and tested if our projections were robust to these uncertainties. Declines in the availability of suitable climate within the IBA network by 2100 were forecast as ‘extremely likely’ for 45% of species, whereas increases were projected for only 2%. Thus, we predict almost 24 times as many ‘losers’ as ‘winners’. However, for no species was suitable climate ‘extremely likely’ to be completely lost from the network. Considerable turnover (median = 43%, 95% CI = 35–69%) in species compositions of most IBAs were projected by 2100. Climatic conditions in 47% of IBAs were projected as ‘extremely likely’ to become suitable for fewer priority species. However, no IBA was forecast to become suitable for more species. Variation among General Circulation Models and Species Distribution Models contributed most to uncertainty among forecasts. This uncertainty precluded firm conclusions for 53% of species and IBAs because 95% confidence intervals included projections of no change. Considering this uncertainty, however, allows robust recommendations concerning the remaining species and IBAs. Overall, while the IBA network will continue to sustain bird conservation, climate change will modify which species each site will be suitable for. Thus, adaptive management of the network, including modified site conservation strategies and facilitating species' movement among sites, is critical to ensure effective future conservation.     

Ensemble models predict Important Bird Areas in southern Africa will become less effective for conserving endemic birds under climate change

Aim  To examine the impacts of climate change on endemic birds, which are of global significance for conservation, on a continent with few such assessments. We specifically assess projected range changes in relation to the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) network and assess the possible consequences for conservation.
Location  South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland.
Methods  The newly emerging ensemble modelling approach is used with 50 species, four climate change models for the period 2070–2100 and eight bioclimatic niche models in the statistical package biomod . Model evaluation is done using the receiver operating characteristic and the recently introduced true skill statistic. Future projections are made considering two extreme assumptions: species have full dispersal ability and species have no dispersal ability. A consensus forecast is identified using principal components analysis. This forecast is interpreted in terms of the IBA network. An irreplaceability analysis is used to highlight priority IBAs for conservation attention in terms of climate change.
Results  The majority of species (62%) are predicted to lose climatically suitable space. Five species lose at least 85% of their climatically suitable space. Many IBAs lose species (41%; 47 IBAs) and show high rates of species turnover of more than 50% (77%; 95 IBAs). Highly irreplaceable regions for endemic species become highly localized under climate change, meaning that the endemic species analysed here experience similar range contractions to maintain climate niches.
Main conclusions  The South African IBAs network is likely to become less effective for conserving endemic birds under climate change. The irreplaceability analysis identified key refugia for endemic species under climate change, but many of these areas are not currently IBAs. In addition, many of these high-priority areas that are IBAs fall outside the current formal protected areas network.     

Developing National Conservation Programmes through the IBA Process

Nigussie, A.T. & Dellelegn, Y. 2000. Developing national conservation programmes through the IBA process. Ostrich 71(1 & 2): 162–163.

The history of the Ethiopian Wildlife and Naural History Society (EWNHS) is presented and the background to involvement with BirdLife International and incorporation in the African network as a BirdLife Partner is described. The IBA intitiative has formed the core of the EWNHS BirdLife programme and two years of funding from the European Union has faciliated the launch of a full-scale national IBA inventory and conservation programme. The current state of the analysis of Ethiopia's important sites is presented together with the plan for further site survey work and for action to conserve sites though advocacy and the developmant of local and national capacity to monitor and manage sites.     

How well do Important Bird Areas represent species and minimize conservation conflict in the tropical Andes?

Where high species richness and high human population density coincide, potential exists for conflict between the imperatives of species conservation and human development. We examine the coincidence of at‐risk bird species richness and human population in the countries of the tropical Andes. We then compare the performance of the expert‐driven Important Bird Areas (IBA) scheme against a hypothetical protected‐areas network identified with a systematic reserve selection algorithm seeking to maximize at‐risk bird species representation. Our aim is to assess the degree to which: IBAs contain a higher richness of at‐risk species than would be expected by chance, IBAs contain more people than would be expected by chance, and IBAs are congruent with complementary areas that maximize species representation with an equivalent number of sites. While the correlation of richness and population was low for the region as a whole, representation of all at‐risk bird species required many sites to be located in areas of high human population density. IBA sites contained higher human population densities than expected by chance (P < 0.05) and were markedly less efficient in representing at‐risk bird species of the region than sites selected using the reserve selection algorithm. Moreover, overlap between IBAs and these latter sites was very limited. Expert‐driven selection procedures may better reflect existing sociopolitical forces, including land ownership and management regimes, but are limited in their ability to develop an efficient, integrated network of sites to represent priority species. Reserve selection algorithms may serve this end by optimizing complementarity in species representation among selected sites, whether these sites are adopted independently or as a supplement to the existing reserve network. As tools of site selection, they may be particularly useful in areas such as the tropical Andes where complex patterns of species disjunction and co‐occurrence make the development of representative reserve networks particularly difficult. Furthermore, they facilitate making spatially explicit choices about how reserve sites are located in relation to human populations. We advocate their use not in replacement of approaches such as the IBA initiative but as an additional, complementary tool in ensuring that such reserve networks are developed as efficiently as practically possible.     

Projected impacts of climate change on a continent-wide protected area network

Despite widespread concern, the continuing effectiveness of networks of protected areas under projected 21st century climate change is uncertain. Shifts in species' distributions could mean these resources will cease to afford protection to those species for which they were originally established. Using modelled projected shifts in the distributions of sub-Saharan Africa's entire breeding avifauna, we show that species turnover across the continent's Important Bird Area (IBA) network is likely to vary regionally and will be substantial at many sites (> 50% at 42% of IBAs by 2085 for priority species). Persistence of suitable climate space across the network as a whole, however, is notably high, with 88–92% of priority species retaining suitable climate space in ≥ 1 IBA(s) in which they are currently found. Only 7–8 priority species lose climatic representation from the network. Hence, despite the likelihood of significant community disruption, we demonstrate that rigorously defined networks of protected areas can play a key role in mitigating the worst impacts of climate change on biodiversity.     

Trends in forest condition,threats and conservation action as derived from participatory monitoring in coastal Kenya

The coastal forests of Kenya are conservation priorities hosting high levels of biodiversity. Monitoring of biodiversity in these forests is therefore necessary to understand and reverse negative trends in good time. Using the Important Bird Area (IBA) monitoring framework, a participatory approach, state (habitat condition), pressure (threats) and response (conservation action) indicators of twelve coastal Kenya forest IBAs were assessed from 2004 to 2011. Trends for these indicators were assessed at six sites for which sufficient data existed: Arabuko‐Sokoke, Dakatcha Woodlands, Gede Ruins, Lower Tana River, Shimba Hills and Taita Hills, and baselines were described for remaining six. Changes were always small, but state deteriorated in Gede, Lower Tana and Shimba Hills, remained the same (unfavourable) in Arabuko‐Sokoke and Dakatcha, and improved in Taita Hills. Pressure reduced in Arabuko‐Sokoke, Dakatcha and Taita Hills, deteriorated in Lower Tana and Shimba Hills and remained the same (medium) in Gede. Response improved in Dakatcha, remained the same (medium) in Shimba Hills, and deteriorated in the rest. As there was an apparent overall deterioration in the forests assessed, improved management of the protected sites and increased conservation action through community engagement around protected areas and within the nonprotected IBAs are recommended.     

Protecting important sites for biodiversity contributes to meeting global conservation targets

Protected areas (PAs) are a cornerstone of conservation efforts and now cover nearly 13% of the world's land surface, with the world's governments committed to expand this to 17%. However, as biodiversity continues to decline, the effectiveness of PAs in reducing the extinction risk of species remains largely untested. We analyzed PA coverage and trends in species' extinction risk at globally significant sites for conserving birds (10,993 Important Bird Areas, IBAs) and highly threatened vertebrates and conifers (588 Alliance for Zero Extinction sites, AZEs) (referred to collectively hereafter as 'important sites'). Species occurring in important sites with greater PA coverage experienced smaller increases in extinction risk over recent decades: the increase was half as large for bird species with>50% of the IBAs at which they occur completely covered by PAs, and a third lower for birds, mammals and amphibians restricted to protected AZEs (compared with unprotected or partially protected sites). Globally, half of the important sites for biodiversity conservation remain unprotected (49% of IBAs, 51% of AZEs). While PA coverage of important sites has increased over time, the proportion of PA area covering important sites, as opposed to less important land, has declined (by 0.45-1.14% annually since 1950 for IBAs and 0.79-1.49% annually for AZEs). Thus, while appropriately located PAs may slow the rate at which species are driven towards extinction, recent PA network expansion has under-represented important sites. We conclude that better targeted expansion of PA networks would help to improve biodiversity trends.     

Birdlife International: who we are and where we have come from

Rands, M. 2000. Birdlife International: who we are and where we have come from. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 148–149.

The International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP)—the forerunner of BirdLife International—was founded in 1922 by a small and dedicated group of individuals. It has grown into a world-wide network of Partner organisations and individuals committed to achieving the conservation of the world's birds and other biological diversity. The evolution and some major achievements of the organisation are outlined, from the early days of ICBP, to the current status of BirdLife International, actively represented in 80 countries world-wide. The BirdLife Vision, the mission of the Partnership, the regional structures and some of the personalities behind the conservation action are presented as the organisation looks forward to the challenge of conserving the world's birds in the 21st century.     

The Foraging Ecology of the Endangered Cape Verde Shearwater,a Sentinel Species for Marine Conservation off West Africa

Large Marine Ecosystems such as the Canary Current system off West Africa sustains high abundance of small pelagic prey, which attracts marine predators. Seabirds are top predators often used as biodiversity surrogates and sentinel species of the marine ecosystem health, thus frequently informing marine conservation planning. This study presents the first data on the spatial (GPS-loggers) and trophic (stable isotope analysis) ecology of a tropical seabird—the endangered Cape Verde shearwater Calonectris edwardsii–during both the incubation and the chick-rearing periods of two consecutive years. This information was related with marine environmental predictors (species distribution models), existent areas of conservation concern for seabirds (i.e. marine Important Bird Areas; marine IBAs) and threats to the marine environment in the West African areas heavily used by the shearwaters. There was an apparent inter-annual consistency on the spatial, foraging and trophic ecology of Cape Verde shearwater, but a strong alteration on the foraging strategies of adult breeders among breeding phases (i.e. from incubation to chick-rearing). During incubation, birds mostly targeted a discrete region off West Africa, known by its enhanced productivity profile and thus also highly exploited by international industrial fishery fleets. When chick-rearing, adults exploited the comparatively less productive tropical environment within the islands of Cape Verde, at relatively close distance from their breeding colony. The species enlarged its trophic niche and increased the trophic level of their prey from incubation to chick-rearing, likely to provision their chicks with a more diversified and better quality diet. There was a high overlap between the Cape Verde shearwaters foraging areas with those of European shearwater species that overwinter in this area and known areas of megafauna bycatch off West Africa, but very little overlap with existing Marine Important Bird Areas. Further investigation on the potential nefarious effects of fisheries on seabird communities exploiting the Canary Current system off West Africa is needed. Such negative effects could be alleviated or even dissipated if the ‘fisheries-conservation hotspots’ identified for the region, would be legislated as Marine Protected Areas.     

A Model Web approach to modelling climate change in biomes of Important Bird Areas

Protected Areas (PA) are designated to conserve species and habitats and protect against anthropogenic pressures. Park boundaries, however, offer no protection against climatic change and where boundaries are actual constructions, they may also act as physical barriers to species movements to new suitable habitats. The means for assessing the consequences of climate change on ecosystems and for identifying gaps in PA connectivity are therefore a conservation priority. The complexity of the scientific questions raised requires a multi-disciplinary approach given the variety of the information required. This includes species observations and their theoretical distributions, as well as ecosystem assessments and climate change models. Such complex questions can be more easily dealt with if there is appropriate access to data and models, a strategy endorsed by GEO-BON, the Group on Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation Network. In this paper, we show how data and models recently made available on the World Wide Web can be coupled through interoperable services and used for climate change forecasting in the context of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) and how, for any bird species described in the databases, areas can be identified where the species may find a more suitable environment in the future. As presented, this is an example of the Model Web.     

Are important bird areas and special protected areas enough for conservation?: the case of Bonelli’s eagle in a Mediterranean area

The Bonelli’s eagle (BE) is considered by the European Union as a high-priority species for conservation in the Valencian Community (East of Spain). However, in 2006 the European Union opened a legal procedure against the Spanish Kingdom, accused of lacking of an adequate network of special protected areas (SPAs) to preserve the BE in the region. Here we evaluate whether important bird areas (IBAs) and SPAs network is enough to preserve this species, on the basis of a thorough analysis of habitat preferences. A GAP analysis is performed to conduct a revision of current SPAs and BirdLife proposed IBAs. Our results suggest that the current network of SPAs becomes insufficient to protect the BE. The IBAs network, although improves the current network of SPAs, increasing the percentage of BE potential habitat included, also results inadequate. We propose a new SPAs network according to the potential suitable habitat for the species. Given the trade-off between financial investment and the conservation of biodiversity, we propose to maximize the surface of potential habitat included in the protected network minimizing the surface of the region that would be necessary to protect, thus avoiding an unnecessary expense and otherwise unrealistic results.     

Recent papyrus swamp habitat loss and conservation implications in western Kenya

Papyrus Cyperus papyrus swamps are characteristic of many wetlands of tropical Africa. Like most wetland habitats worldwide, they are under human pressure due to harvesting and reclamation for agriculture. Changes in papyrus cover were assessed using aerial photographs at three Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in the Kenyan sector of Lake Victoria. Papyrus area losses of 50% (Dunga), 47% (Koguta) and 34% (Kusa) occurred between 1969 and 2000. The habitat loss and degradation at the sites appeared purposeful, driven by demand for agricultural land and other papyrus products. Cleared papyrus and cultivated areas around all sites increased over the same period. If papyrus habitat loss continues at current rates, papyrus swamps at Dunga and Koguta will disappear by 2020, and Kusa will be reduced to only 19% of its 1969 area. Human population growth around the sites, with concomitant increase in land use activities and papyrus harvesting are the major factors that account for papyrus area reductions. Loss of total habitat is accompanied by deterioration in habitat quality within remaining areas. Papyrus physical structure (height and density) inversely correlate to human disturbances that include footpaths, cutting, burning, grazing and farming. The continued papyrus habitat loss and degradation represents a significant threat to biodiversity conservation particularly for papyrus-specialist birds and other papyrus-reliant species in western Kenya. The observed pattern of papyrus extents and land use changes at all sites provide the site-scale information necessary for papyrus conservation planning. In particular, conservation action is needed most urgently at Dunga and Koguta as they face severe land use pressures.     

Le Projet ‘Zicoma’ ou ‘Zones d'Importance pour la Conservation des Oiseaux a Madagascar’

Rakotonomenjanahary, M.O. & Hawkins, A.F.A. 2000. Le Projet ‘Zicoma’ ou ‘zones d'importance pour la conservation des oiseaux a Madagascar’. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 168–171.

Madagascar a seulement 277 espèces d'oiseau recensées jusqu'à maintenant. Mais le niveau d'endémisme est très élevé avec 110 espèces endéemiques, 37 genres endémiques et 5 familles endémiques. Selon les critères internationaux, 45 eqèces sont menacées globalement et 9 autres espèces sont des oiseaux à territoire restreint. Au cours d'un atelier, 37 ornithologues basés à Madagascar ont identifyé 53 sites qui sont considérés comme ZICO confirmé et 52 autres ZICO provisoires. ASITY, la première association pour les ornithologues Malagasy, était constituée pendant I'atelier. Le programme ZICOMA commencera en 1997 avec la formation technique des chercheurs Malagasy pour faire des missions sur le terrain des ZICO nonfirmés.

Rakotonomenjanahary, M.O. & Hawkins, A.F.A. 2000. The Important Bird Areas programme in Madagascar. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 168–171.

Madagascar does not have a rich avifauna, with 277 species recorded to date. However, the level of endemism is very high: 110 endemic species, 37 endemic genera, and 5 endemic families. Following international criteria, 45 species are globally threatened and a further 9 qualify as restricted area species. A workshop involving 37 Madagascar-based ornithologists identified 53 confirmed IBA's, and a further 52 possible IBA's. ASITY, the first Malagasy ornithological society, was founded during this meeting. The Zicoma project, commencing in 1997, will focus on the assessment of the unconfirmed IBA sites, and on the training of local personnel.