Two new Triassic sphinctozoan sponge species from near Kantang, Trang Province, Southern Thailand

A black limestone collected from near Kantan, Trang Province, southern Thailand, contains two species of sphinctozoan sponge which have been namedAmblysiphonella parva n. sp. andPlatythalamiella minima n. sp. The former is a cylindrical chambered sponge with an axial spongocoel and ring chambers.P. minima is an asiphonate and tabular sponge characterized by small chambers arranged in one or two layers above and beside each other. Both are the smallest known species in their respective genera. Hypercalcified sponges have not previously been reported from the Triassic of Thailand.      

Cultivation of Sponge Larvae: Settlement,Survival, and Growth of Juveniles

The aim of this study was to culture sponge juveniles from larvae. Starting from larvae we expected to enhance the survival and growth, and to decrease the variation in these parameters during the sponge cultures. First, settlement success, morphological changes during metamorphosis, and survival of Dysidea avara, Ircinia oros, Hippospongia communis, under the same culture conditions, were compared. In a second step, we tested the effects of flow and food on survival and growth of juveniles from Dysidea avara and Crambe crambe. Finally, in a third experiment, we monitored survival and growth of juveniles of D. avara and C. crambe transplanted to the sea to compare laboratory and field results. The results altogether indicated that sponge culture from larvae is a promising method for sponge supply and that laboratory culture under controlled conditions is preferred over sea cultures in order to prevent biomass losses during these early life stages.     

Pione lampa,a bioeroding sponge in a worm reef

A bioeroding sponge was found in a sabellariid worm reef in Florida, USA. The sponge was investigated with standard techniques for species identification (tissue digestion, microscopy techniques, examination of spicules) and was identified as the clionid Pione lampa (De Laubenfels, 1950). This species is extremely similar to Pione vastifica (Hancock, 1849). Morphological and ecological similarities and possible dissimilarities are discussed. Arguments for conspecifity were found to be weaker than evidence of P. lampa and P. vastifica being separate species. The sampled sponge contained asexual reproductive elements: superficial buds and internal gemmules. Buds were very delicate, consisting mainly of a radially-oriented mesh of collageneous threads. They further comprised abundant granular material and acanthose microrhabds. Numerous choanosomal gemmules were found in the sponge body attached to erosion chamber walls. They were subspherical to lenticular and had an aspicular, unstructured, smooth and rigid coat. It enclosed dense cell material and various spicule types. Whereas buds are interpreted to function as dispersal elements, gemmules will primarily ensure survival under adverse conditions such as smothering, exposure to air and high temperatures. Gemmules from this site might occasionally be freed and scattered, since the Florida reef can suffer heavy damage during periods of increased wave activity such as that created during hurricane season. Bioerosion activity of the sponge increases the chance to free gemmules, as the sponge not only etches into calcareous particles cemented into the matrix produced by the worms, but also into the matrix itself. This ability enables the sponge to utilise the reef as substrate. Within the Clionidae, Cliona annulifera and three species of the genus Pione are the only species known to produce typical gemmules. Possible reasons are: (1) reproduction of bioeroding sponges is understudied and asexual bodies may have been overlooked in other species, and (2) clionid gemmules are an adaptation to survive life in risky environments. Sponges of the genus Pioneare comparatively successful in environments in which they are close to their physical limits or in potentially unstable or mobile substrates.     

Skeletal response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lophelia pertusa</Emphasis> (Scleractinia) to bioeroding sponge infestation visualised with micro-computed tomography

The skeleton morphology of the azooxanthellate cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa can be strongly influenced by invasive boring sponges that infest corallites in the still living part of the colony. Atypically swollen corallites of live Lophelia pertusa from the Galway Mound (Belgica Carbonate Mound Province, Porcupine Seabight, NE Atlantic), heavily excavated by boring organisms, have been examined with a wide range of non-destructive and destructive methods: micro-computed tomography, macro- and microscopic observations of the outer coral skeleton, longitudinal and transversal thin sections and SEM analyses of coral skeleton casts. As a result, three excavating sponge species have been distinguished within the coral skeleton: Alectona millari, Spiroxya heteroclita and Aka infesta. Furthermore, four main coral/sponge growth stages have been recognised: (1) cylindrical juvenile corallite/no sponge cavities; (2) flared juvenile corallite/linear sponge cavities (if present); (3) slightly swollen adult corallites/chambered oval sponge cavities; (4) very swollen adult corallites/widespread cavities. The inferred correlation between corallite morphology and boring sponge infestation has been detected in micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) images and confirmed in sponge trace casts and peculiar features of coral skeleton microstructure. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorised users.     

Epibiontic and endobiontic polychaetes of Geodia cydonium (Porifera,Demospongiae) from the Mediterranean Sea

Polychaete assemblages associated to the sponge Geodia cydonium were investigated at two sampling sites in the Mediterranean Sea: Porto Cesareo Basin (Apulia) and Marsala Lagoon (Sicily), both characterized by sheltered hydrodynamic conditions. Samples were seasonally performed during 1997, in order to compare the assemblages coming from the two localities studied, considering separately the internal and external tissues of the sponge, and with the aim of evaluating the influence of sponge size on polychaete colonization. The examined sponge is characterized by a peculiar stratification of its tissues: an external thick and hard layer, the cortex, and an internal softer one, the choanosome. Statistical analysis showed that this was the main factor controlling polychaete assemblage, with the internal tissue, less rich and diversified, appearing impoverished with respect to the external layer. A similarity in species composition was observed between sites, even though some differences were evidenced in the abundance of some species, mainly reflecting differences in local environmental conditions. Species richness and density increased with the increasing sponge size. Such a situation is particularly evident at Porto Cesareo, where sponges are covered by an algal layer which is particularly rich on the largest specimens, thus suggesting that most of the species of polychaetes were linked more to the neighbouring environment than to the sponge itself.     

Isolation and Structure Elucidation of Epipolasterol and 22,23-Dihydroepipolasterol from the Marine Sponge Epipolasis sp.

Two new sterols, epipolasterol and 22(23)-dihydroepipolasterol, have been isolated from the marine sponge Epipolasis sp. These are unusual metabolites as they both contain a t-butyl group in the sterol side chain. In addition, the presence of two degrees of unsaturation in the side chain of epipolasterol is rare. The known sterol, 22-dehydro-24-isopropylcholesterol was also found in this sponge.     

Non-rigid cryptic sponges in oyster patch reefs (Lower Kimmeridgian, Langenberg/Oker, Germany)

Summary Two patch reefs which predominately consist of the oysterNanogyra nana (Sowerby 1822) are exposed in Lower Kimmeridigian strata of the Langenberg hillrange, central Germany. Left oyster valves making up the frame-work of the reefs formed small abundant cavities that were inhabited by a unique sponge community. The excellent preservation of non-rigid sponges was related to early organomineralization within the decaying sponge tissue. As a process of sponge taphonomy, different types of microbially induced carbonates precipitated preserving spicule aggregates. Organomineralization within sponge soft tissues is especially favored with the Langenberg patch reefs due to the closed or semi-closed system conditions with the cavities. The δ¹³C values ofin situ formed microbialities reveal that carbonate precipitation was in equilibrium with Jurassic seawater. The carbon of the microbialites does not derive from the bacterial remineralization of organic matter, but is of a marine source. Likewise, organomineralization is probably related to bacterial EPS or decaying sponge tissues providing an organic matrix for initial carbonate precipitation. Biomarker analyses revealed, that the patch reef microbialites contain terminally branched fatty acids (iso-andanteiso-pentadecanoic acid) in significant concentrations. These fatty acids, like hopanoid hydrocarbons, are most likely of a bacterial source. This is in agreement with sulfate-reducing bacteria remineralizing the decaying sponges as further indicated by the occurrence of framboidal pyrite in sponge microbialites.     

Tissue sloughing in the sponge Halichondria panicea: a fouling organism prevents being fouled

Summary Specimens of the sponge Halichondria panicea Pallas kept in running sea-water aquaria at 15° C slough off their complete outer tissue layer in regular intervals of three weeks. Sloughing starts at the rim of the oscula and extends over the whole surface within two weeks. Microscopic inspection of the tissue flakes shows them to harbour large numbers of different live organisms, as well as biogenic debris such as pieces of copepod carapaces and diatom frustules. No such community is found on freshly sloughed sponge tissue. After sloughing, the surface skeletal structure of H. panicea is markedly altered, as the characteristic halichondroid reticulum has been replaced by the irregular spicule array typical for the inner sponge tissue. When H. panicea is kept in closed aquaria filled with 0.2 m filtered sea-water, no sloughing occurs during 3 months of maintenance. As those sponges shedding their outer tissue grow steadily at the same time, the tissue sloughing can be regarded as a reaction to sedimentation of organic material and settlement of small organisms on the sponge surface. The sponge thus counteracts clogging of its ostia and prevents the establishment of a micro fouling community on its surface, inhibiting further fouling processes.     

Culturable heterotrophic bacteria from the marine sponge <Emphasis Type="Italic">Dendrilla</Emphasis> <Emphasis Type="Italic">nigra</Emphasis>: isolation and phylogenetic diversity of actinobacteria

Culturable heterotrophic bacterial composition of marine sponge Dendrilla nigra was analysed using different enrichments. Five media compositions including without enrichment (control), enriched with sponge extract, with growth regulator (antibiotics), with autoinducers, and complete enrichment containing sponge extract, antibiotics, and autoinducers were developed. DNA hybridization assay was performed to explore host specific bacteria and ecotypes of culturable sponge-associated bacteria. Enrichment with selective inducers (AHLs and sponge extract) and regulators (antibiotics) considerably enhanced the cultivation potential of sponge-associated bacteria. It was found that Marinobacter (MSI032), Micromonospora (MSI033), Streptomyces (MSI051), and Pseudomonas (MSI057) were sponge-associated obligate symbionts. The present findings envisaged that “Micromonospora–Saccharomonospora–Streptomyces” group was the major culturable actinobacteria in the marine sponge D. nigra. The DNA hybridization assay was a reliable method for the analysis of culturable bacterial community in marine sponges. Based on the culturable community structure, the sponge-associated bacteria can be grouped (ecotypes) as general symbionts, specific symbionts, habitat flora, and antagonists.     

Arrangement and size distribution of repeat and single copy DNA sequences in four species ofCucurbitaceae

DNA sequence organization patterns have been studied in fourCucurbitaceae plant species, namely,Luffa cylindrica (sponge gourd),L. acutangula (ridge gourd),Benincasa hispida (ash gourd) andCoccinia indica (ivy gourd). Extensive interspersion of repeat and single copy sequences has been observed in sponge gourd and ridge gourd. In ash gourd and ivy gourd, however, there is a limited interspersion of these sequences and a large portion of the single copy DNA remains uninterspersed. The interspersed repetitive sequences are composed of a major class (75–80%) of short repeats (300 base pairs long) and a minor class (15–20%) of long repeats (2 000–4 000 base pairs) in all the four species. The average length of single copy sequences dispersed among repeats is 1 800–2 900 base pairs. In spite of these gross similarities in the genome organization in the four species, the fraction of repeats and single copy sequences involved in short and long period interspersion patterns, and fraction of single copy sequences remaining uninterrupted by repeats are vastly different. The probable implications of these differences with respect to speciation events and rates of genome evolution are discussed.Molecular Analysis ofCucurbitaceae Genomes, III. — NCL Communication No.: 3595.     

Scanning electron microscopy of taxonomic diagnostic criteria of the freshwater sponge,Heteromeyenia tubisperma (Potts, 1881) (Porifera : Spongillidae)

Taxonomic diagnostic criteria of the spongillid freshwater sponge, Heteromeyenia tubisperma (Potts, 1881) were examined using scanning electron microscopy. The species is characterized by a gemmule which bears an unusually long, prominent porous tube. The application of SEM to the systematic studies of the freshwater sponges provides diagnostic capabilities not available with the light microscope. It is desirable that a key, coupled with a reference atlas of scanning electron micrographs illustrating taxonomic diagnostic criteria of freshwater sponge species, particularly utilizing type specimens, be developed.     

Nor-sterols in Axinella proliferans, sponge from the Indian Ocean

An examination of the sterol mixture of the sponge Axinella proliferans collected in the Indian Ocean led to the isolation of nine A-nor-sterols, including two rare nor-sterols with a D-ring unsaturation. The known 3β-(hydroxymethyl)-A-nor-5α-cholest-15-ene has been identified by a comparison with mass spectrum and ¹H and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) data of the sterol isolated from Homoaxinella trachys, a marine sponge collected in the Indian Ocean. A new sterol, 3β-(hydroxymethyl)-A-nor-5α-cholest-14-ene-16α-ol, has been identified by their mass and two-dimensional NMR spectra compared with those of the D-ring unsaturated sterol, 5α-cholest-14-ene-3β,16α-diol isolated from the Mediterannean sponge Topsentia aurantiaca.     

Effects of calcium and salinity on the growth rate of Ephydatia fluviatilis (Porifera: Spongillidae)

The freshwater sponge, Ephydatia fluviatilis (Porifera: Spongillidae), was maintained in a continuous-flow laboratory culture system under several conditions of calcium ion (Ca⁺⁺) concentration and salinity. Experimental results suggest that sponge growth rate increases with increasing Ca⁺⁺ concentration, that sponge growth rate decreases with increasing salinity, and that the negative effect of higher salinity can be overcome by increasing Ca⁺⁺ concentration. The experimental results correlate well with field observations on the effects of salinity and Ca⁺⁺ on the distribution of E. fluviatilis.     

Induction of apoptosis by the marine sponge (Mycale) metabolites, mycalamide A and pateamine

The marine sponge metabolites mycalamide A (myca-lamide) and pateamine are extremely cytotoxic. While mycalamide has been shown to inhibit protein synthesis, the mechanism by which these compounds induce cell death is unknown. Using DNA laddering, Annexin-V staining, and morphological analysis, we demonstrate that both metabolites induce apoptosis in several different cell lines. Furthermore, both mycalamide and pateamine were more potent inducers of apoptosis in the 32D myeloid cell line after transformation with either the ras or bcr-abl oncogenes. This increased sensitivity was also observed in response to the protein synthesis inhibitors cycloheximide and puromycin, and cytosine--D-arabinofurano-side (Ara-C), an inducer of DNA damage. We propose, therefore, that in 32D cells where Ras signalling has been altered either by constitutive expression of oncogenic ras or by Bcr/abl-mediated perturbation of upstream signalling events, increased susceptibility to apoptosis by a range of stimuli is conferred.     

The effects of cadmium and mercury on gemmule formation and gemmosclere morphology in Ephydatia fluviatilis (Porifera : Spongillidae)

A laboratory study of the effects of cadmium and mercury on the freshwater sponge, Ephydatia fluviatilis, was conducted. Sponge cuttings were exposed to concentrations of cadmium or mercury which ranged from 1.000 to 0.001 ppm for one month. The responses exhibited by the specimens resulted in four groups characterized as follows: sponge colony survived and produced gemmules with normal gemmoscleres; sponge colony survived and produced gemmules with malformed gemmoscleres; sponge colony survived but did not gemmulate; sponge colony died. A direct discriminant functions analysis of the four sponge groups, metal concentrations and other chemical data established a highly significant correlation between increasing metal concentrations and amount of damage to the sponge.     

Growth and Survival of Early Juveniles of the Marine Sponge Hymeniacidon perlevis (Demospongiae) Under Controlled Conditions

To resolve “the supply problem” in sponge-derived drug development and other biotechnological applications, current research is exploring the possibility of obtaining an alternative sustainable supply of sponge biomass through intensive aquaculture of sponges utilizing artificial seed rearing. This study aimed to investigate the technology of early juvenile sponge cultivation under controlled conditions. The effects of food, temperature, water flow, and light on the growth and survival of early juveniles of the marine sponge Hymeniacidon perlevis were examined. The concentrations of four types of food elements [microalgae (Isochrysis galbana), photosynthetic bacteria (Rhodopseudomonas), Fe³⁺ (FeCl₃), and Si (Na₂SiO₃)] were investigated for early H. perlevis juvenile growth. Interestingly, temperature changes have striking effects on juvenile growth. Juvenile sponges grow faster when they are shifted to higher temperatures (18°C to 23°C) than when they are shifted to lower temperatures (18°C to 4°C to 23°C) or kept at a constant temperature (18°C). Periodic water flow and light cycles favor early juvenile sponge growth. Light was found to be a key factor in the color loss of early H. perlevis juveniles. Overall, size (area) increased as much as 29 times for H. perlevis juveniles under the tested controlled conditions.     

Chemical Composition during Maturing and Spawning of the Sponge Dysidea herbacea (Porifera: Demospongiae)

Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) have been implicated in many biochemical processes in marine organisms, but the major emphasis has been directed to their role as UV protectant compounds. The quantitation of MAAs, mycosporine-glu-gly, mycosporine-gly, usujirene and palythene in the sponge Dysidea herbacea [34] suggests that whereas some mycosporine amino acids may serve in this capacity, others are intrinsically involved in the reproductive process. The role of other compounds, such as homarine, gadusol and arachidonic acid, in reproduction of this sponge is also discussed.     

Microbial symbionts of the Australian Great Barrier Reef sponge, Candidaspongia flabellata

Microbial symbionts of the newly described rare, biochemically active Dictyoceratid sponge, Candidaspongia flabellata (Very White Fan) found in the Australian Great Barrier Reef, are being studied in detail. The chemistry of this sponge species is distinctive, and includes a previously undescribed compound, fanolide as well as homosesterterpene and bishomoscalarane secondary metabolites (Bergquist et al., 1999). Current research is focused on assessing the diversity of the microbial community associated with this sponge. The entire culturable community of this sponge has been studied in detail. A total of 228 bacteria, 25 fungi, 3 actinomycetes and 9 cyanobacteria were isolated from 10 individuals of this sponge. Eight eubacteria (designated AB001–AB008), along with seven cyanobacteria were consistently found associated with C. flabellata and absent from the surrounding water column, suggesting that these bacteria have a specific association with the sponge. Partial 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing of these isolates was done for phylogenetic characterisation. Electron microscopy was also used to confirm the presence of many morphotypes of bacteria and indicated spatial arrangements of particular morphotypes.     

Upper Permian coral reef and colonial rugose corals in northwest Hunan, South China

Summary The roles of Permian colonial corals in forming organic reefs have not been adequately assessed, although they are common fossils in the Permian strata. It is now known that colonial corals were important contributors to reef framework during the middle and late Permian such as those in South China, northeast Japan, Oman and Thailand. A coral reef occurs in Kanjia-ping, Cili County, Hunan, South China. It is formed by erect and unscathed colonies ofWaagenophyllum growing on top of one anotherin situ to form a baffle and framework. Paleontological data of the Cili coral reef indicates a middle to late Changhsing age (Late Permian), corresponding to thePalaeofusulina zone. The coral reef exposure extends along the inner platform margin striking in E-S direction for nearly 4 km laterally and generally 35 to 57 m thick. The Cili coral reef exhibits a lateral differentiation into three main reef facies; reef core facies, fore-reef facies, and marginal slope facies. The major reef-core facies is well exposed in Shenxian-wan and Guanyin-an sections where it rests on the marginal slope facies. Colonial corals are dispersed and preserved in non-living position easward. Sponges become major stabilizing organisms in the eastern part of Changhsing limestone outcrop in Kanjia-ping, but no read sponge reefs were formed. Coral reefs at Cili County in Human are different distinctly from calcisponge reefs in South China in their palaeogeography, lithofacies development, organic constitutuents, palaeoecology and diagenesis. The Cili coral reef also shows differences in age, depositional facies association, reef organisms and diagenesis from coral reefs in South Kitakami of Japan, Khorat Plateau of Thailand, and Saih Hatat of Oman. Although some sponge reefs and mounds can reach up to the unconformable Permian/Triassic boundary, coral reef at Kanjia-ping, Cili County, is the latest Permian reef known. This reef appears to had been formed in a palaeoenvironment that is different from that of the sponge reefs and provides an example of new and unique Permian reef type in South China, and could help us to: 1) understand the significance of colonial corals in Permian carbonate buildups; 2) evaluate the importance of coral community evolution prior to the collapse of reef ecosystems at the Permian/Triassic boundary; 3) better understand the effects of the biotic extinction events in Palaeotethys realm; 4) look for environmental factors that may have controlled reefs through time and space, and 5) provide valuable data for the study of Permian palaeoclimate and global evolutionary changes of Permian reefs and reef community.     

Compositional analysis of archaeal communities in high and low microbial abundance sponges in the Misool coral reef system,Indonesia

The high/low microbial abundance (HMA/LMA) dichotomy in sponges has been the subject of several studies over recent years, but few studies have analysed this dichotomy in terms of the sponge archaeal community and function. Using a 16S rRNA gene barcoded pyrosequencing approach and predictive functional analysis (PICRUSt) we compared the archaeal composition, richness and predicted function of one HMA sponge (Xestospongia testudinaria), one LMA sponge (Stylissa carteri) and one sponge species of unknown microbial abundance (Aaptos lobata). Although most of the archaeal sequences were assigned to the Crenarchaeota phylum, S. carteri had the highest percentage of sequences assigned to the Euryarchaeota phylum. Variation among sponge species explained >85% of the variation in archaeal operational taxonomic unit (OTU) composition with each sponge species forming a distinct cluster. There were significant differences in predicted PICRUSt profiles among sponge species, suggesting that archaeal communities present in the studied sponge species may perform different functions. X. testudinaria and A. lobata were similar both in terms of OTU and KEGG orthologues composition, which may indicate that A. lobata is a HMA sponge. Additionally, some of the most enriched functions seem to be related to traits associated with high and low microbial abundance sponges.