Use of Feral Cats in Psychotherapy

ABSTRACT

Animal-assisted therapy typically involves the use of domesticated, well controlled animals that are trained to permit approach behavior and interaction by patients. This report describes the use of undomesticated, feral cats as adjuncts to psychotherapy. This approach provides advantages not attainable when domesticated pets are used. Case examples are provided to illuminate the various applications of this unique therapeutic technique.     

The Howl and the Pussy: Feral Cats and Wild Dogs in the Australian Imagination

This paper looks at recent attention given to feral cats in Australia, particularly focusing on their symbolic status in eco-nationalist discourses. Australian eco-nationalism is a specific blend of environmentalist and patriotic sentiments which, in an exaggerated way, positions the feral cat as a rapacious European invader predating on native wild life. This vilification of the cat can be related to much earlier forms of (mainly European) symbolism associating the creature with femininity and evil, which I illustrate by looking at the manner in which the feral cat is opposed to the masculinised Australian wild dog—the dingo. I argue that the recent surfacing of this totemic opposition between ‘the howl and the pussycat’ is related to an eco-nationalist sense of place which simultaneously recognises and denies that the human colonisation of Australia was (and is) a form of feral invasion.     

Spatial and Temporal Trade-Offs by Bluegills in Floodplain River Ecosystems

Ecological trade-offs by organisms to minimize mortality and maximize growth is a foundational theme in ecology. Yet, these trade-offs are rarely examined within spatially complex, temporally variable ecosystems, such as floodplain rivers. Here, we evaluate ecological trade-offs across space and time for the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) in two unregulated river ecosystems in southeastern USA. Life-history differences among spatially segregated main channel and floodplain lake populations were used to assess effects of habitat type on bluegill fitness. Growth, condition, and gonadal somatic index were all significantly enhanced in floodplain lakes relative to the main channel. Furthermore, stomach fullness was significantly higher, and predator densities significantly lower in floodplain lakes thereby providing an ecological explanation for the life-history plasticity observed across the riverscape. However, historical observations suggested that although floodplain lakes are highly productive for bluegills, they are also prone to complete desiccation by drought approximately every 5 years, revealing the ultimate value of channel habitat, which does not dry, as desiccation refugia. Bluegills are faced with a balancing act associated with variation in foraging opportunities, and risks to predation and desiccation, that change in both the temporal and the spatial dimensions of floodplain rivers. The differential responses to these opportunities and risks help to explain why both habitats remain actively populated by bluegills, as well as many other organisms, in these and many other natural rivers.     

Temporal Changes in Native and Exotic Vegetation and Soil Characteristics following Disturbances by Feral Pigs in a California Grassland

Invasive species that increase prevailing disturbance regimes can profoundly alter the composition and structure of ecosystems they invade. Using both comparative and manipulative approaches, we investigated how native and exotic vegetation and soil characteristics at a coastal grassland site in northern California changed through time following disturbances by feral pigs (Sus scrofa). We quantified these successional changes by comparing pig disturbances of varying ages (2, 14, 26+, and 60+ months) during the spring and early summer of 2001. Our results indicate that species richness of native plants increased slowly but steadily through time following disturbances, whereas richness of exotic species rebounded much more rapidly. Percent cover of native perennial grasses also increased steadily through time after pig disturbance, whereas the cover of exotic perennial grasses, annual grasses and forbs initially increased rapidly after disturbance and then remained the same or subsided slightly with time. The cover of native forbs and bulbs either increased weakly through time following disturbance or did not change substantially. Pools of ammonium and nitrate in the soil did not change greatly through time following pig disturbance. Net mineralization rates for ammonium and nitrate also varied little with age since disturbance, although we did find that nitrate mineralization was greater at intermediate ages in one study. Neither organic matter content or particle size varied significantly with disturbance age. In summary, we have shown that native and exotic plants from different functional groups vary greatly in how they recovered from pig disturbances. Exotic taxa were generally able to rapidly colonize and persist in pig disturbances, whereas native taxa usually exhibited a slow but steady rebounding following pig disturbance. Given our results, and those of others from nearby sites, we suggest that the health of coastal grasslands may be enhanced substantially by eliminating or greatly reducing the size of feral pig populations.     

Temporal Analogues to Spatial K Functions

In this article, the spatial statistic known as the K function is adapted for temporal processes and patterns. The (optimal) K-function estimator is used in a testing procedure to determine whether behavior patterns of exposed rats versus control rats are different. Specifically, the temporal analogue to the K function is given and an approximately optimal estimator is developed. Next, a testing procedure, to determine whether a group of point patterns is generated from complete temporal randomness, is given. Finally, a testing procedure, to compare pairwise two groups of point patterns to each other, is given. The testing procedures are illustrated with rat-behavior data from both a control-control experiment as well as an exposed-control experiment, where in the latter case a difference in behavior is known to exist.     

Managing Spatial and Temporal Switchgrass Biomass Yield Variability

Biorefineries that plan to use switchgrass exclusively will encounter year-to-year variability in feedstock production. The economic success of the biorefinery will depend in part on the ability of the management team to strategically identify land for conversion from current use to the production of switchgrass enabling a flow of feedstock for the life of the biorefinery. The objective of this research is to determine the optimal quality, quantity, and location of land to lease while considering the spatial and temporal variability of switchgrass biomass yield. A calibrated biophysical simulation model was used to simulate switchgrass biomass yields for 50 years based on historical weather data from 1962 to 2011, for three land capability classes for each of 30 counties. Mathematical programming models were constructed and solved to determine the optimal leasing scheme for each of three strategies for a biorefinery that requires 2,000 Mg/day. As expected, a model based on the assumption that the average yield would be obtained in each year finds that production from land identified for leasing would be insufficient to fulfill the biorefinery’s needs in half of the years. In the absence of other sources of biomass, the feedstock shortage would require forced idling of the biorefinery for an average of 29.5 days during these years. Results of a strategy of leasing sufficient land to cover feedstock needs in the worst year from among 50 years for which data are available are compared to that of a strategy enabling year-to-year storage.     

Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Habitat Use by Juveniles of a Small Coastal Shark (Mustelus lenticulatus) in an Estuarine Nursery

Juvenile rig (Mustelus lenticulatus) were internally tagged with acoustic transmitters and tracked with acoustic receivers deployed throughout two arms of Porirua Harbour, a small (7 km²) estuary in New Zealand. Ten rig were tracked for up to four months during summer–autumn to determine their spatial and temporal use of the habitat. The overall goal was to estimate the size of Marine Protected Areas required to protect rig nursery areas from direct human impacts. Rig showed clear site preferences, but those preferences varied among rig and over time. They spent most of their time in large basins and on shallow sand and mud flats around the margins, and avoided deep channels. Habitat range increased during autumn for many of the rig. Only one shark spent time in both harbour arms, indicating that there was little movement between the two. Rig home ranges were 2–7 km², suggesting that an effective MPA would need to cover the entire Porirua Harbour. They moved to outer harbour sites following some high river flow rates, and most left the harbour permanently during or soon after a river spike, suggesting that they were avoiding low salinity water. Rig showed strong diel movements during summer, although the diel pattern weakened in autumn. Persistent use of the same day and night sites indicates that diel movements are directed rather than random. Further research is required to determine the sizes of rig home ranges in larger harbours where nursery habitat is more extensive. Marine Protected Areas do not control land-based impacts such as accelerated sedimentation and heavy metal pollution, so integration of marine and terrestrial management tools across a range of government agencies is essential to fully protect nursery areas.     

Temporal and Spatial Order in the Central Plains

Abstract

The major archeological complexes of the Central Plains can be arranged according to the Willey and Phillips system, thus recognizing not only content but time and space diemnsions.     

Temporal Evolution of MRI Characteristics in Dogs with Collagenase-Induced Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is one of the most lethal types of stroke. Neuroimaging techniques, particularly MRI, have improved the diagnostic accuracy of ICH. The MRI characteristics of the evolving stages of ICH in humans—but not those in dogs—have been described. In this study, we document the temporal MRI characteristics in a canine model of collagenase-induced ICH. Specifically, ICH was induced in 5 healthy beagles by injecting 500 U of bacterial collagenase from Clostridium histolyticum, which was delivered into the parietal lobe over 5 min by using a microinfusion pump. T1- and T2-weighted, fluid-attenuated inversion recovery, gradient-echo (GRE), and diffusion-weighted (DWI) imaging and measurement of the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) were performed serially at 6 different time points (before and 12 h, 3 d, 5 d, 10 d and 24 d after hemorrhage) by using a 3-T MR system. The temporal changes of T1 signal intensity (SI) corresponded well with the reported human data. The temporal changes of T2 and GRE sequences, with the exception of T2 and GRE hyperintensities at the early subacute stage, also matched. ADC measurements were high at the early subacute stage, and DWI-SI positively correlated with T2- and GRE-SI from the early subacute stage onward. In conclusion, MRI is an ideal method for characterizing the temporal evolution of parenchymal alterations after ICH in dogs. These data might be useful for differentiating clinical stages of ICH in dogs.Abbreviations: ADC, apparent diffusion coefficient; DWI, diffusion-weighted imaging; FLAIR, fluid attenuation inversion recovery; GRE, gradient echo; ICH, intracerebral hemorrhage; ROI, region of interest; SIR, signal intensity ratio; WI, weighted imagingIntracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) occurs in 15% to 20% of all stroke patients.¹⁰ In comparison with ischemic stroke, patients with ICH are at higher risk of death and long-term functional disability.¹⁰ Most survivors remain disabled, owing to the hematoma within the brain parenchyma, which can cause severe neurologic deficits.Because of the rapid progression of brain damage during the first hours after ICH, quick recognition and diagnosis are key. Clinical signs are helpful for early diagnosis but are insufficient for the differentiation of ICH from other stroke subtypes. Brain imaging techniques, including CT and MRI, have helped improve the accuracy of diagnosis, which is necessary for the appropriate treatment of acute cerebrovascular accidents.⁵ Previously, MRI was considered unsuitable for detecting early-stage hemorrhage. However, MRI recently was shown to have high sensitivity for detecting hyperacute ICH, superior even to CT.²¹ MRI is now considered the ideal imaging modality for characterizing the temporal and spatial evolution of parenchymal changes after ICH.³⁰The MRI characteristics of ICH vary with the duration of the hematoma, the type of MRI sequence, and various biologic factors.¹⁷ The several forms of hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, and methemoglobin), which have different magnetic properties, are observed at different times points during hemorrhage, depending on whether they contain unpaired electrons.²⁸ The MR signal intensity (SI) of hemorrhage has been reported for various animal models, from in vitro studies, and during clinical observations.^2,6,12,24 Reflecting the breakdown products of hemoglobin, the MRI features of 5 distinctive stages of ICH have been reported in humans: hyperacute (within 24 h of hemorrhage; intracellular oxyhemoglobin; long T1 and T2 values; iso- to hypointense on T1-weighted images [WI], hyperintense on T2WI); acute (1 to 3 d; intracellular deoxyhemoglobin; long T1, short T2 values; hypointense on T1WI, hypointense on T2WI); early subacute (3 to 7 d; intracellular methemoglobin with intact erythrocyte; short T1 and T2 values; hyperintense on T1WI, hypointense on T2WI); late subacute (7 to 14 d; extracellular methemoglobin with erythrocyte lysis; short T1, long T2 values; hyperintense on T1WI and T2WI); and chronic (after 14 d; ferritin and hemosiderin; long T1, short T2 values; hypointense on T1WI and T2WI).⁴So far, very few clinical studies have assessed the time-dependent evaluation of MRI patterns beyond 24 h in dogs.²³ The clinical setting presents several difficulties to the study of ICH. Because ICH patients are often critically ill, requiring physiologic support, most patients with ICH are unsuitable for MRI due to their medical instability.¹⁵ In dogs, it is frequently impossible to ascertain the precise interval between hemorrhage and MRI scanning. An animal model offers several advantages for studying ICH: histologic analysis in survivors of ICH, the initial testing of novel interventions, homogeneous experimental groups, and a predictable onset of ICH.²⁷An experimental animal model used in human medicine should exhibit certain characteristics, such as ease of standardization and reproducibility, and representation of the principal mechanisms associated with the particular condition in humans.⁸ Small-animal (for example, mice, rats, gerbils) and large-animal (for example, cats, dogs, pigs, sheep, monkeys) models that demonstrate these characteristics have been developed. Although small animals are often more cost-effective and allow for relatively simpler genetic manipulation and management, the use of large-animal models is important in preclinical studies of ICH because these animals have gyrencephalic brains with well-developed white matter that are structurally and functionally similar to human brains.¹⁶ Notably, numerous experimental treatment strategies have been evaluated successfully in rodent models and in vitro, but the vast majority of such modalities subsequently have failed in clinical trials.¹⁸ For all of these reasons, the Stroke Therapy Academic Industry Roundtable strongly recommends the use of appropriate large-animal models of stroke.¹⁹ Among large animals, dogs are readily and economically available, easy to care for, and have predictable intercurrent diseases.Presently, MRI of the brain is extremely useful in confirming stroke, determining the extent of the lesion, and distinguishing between ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. However, MRI findings of canine ICH are largely based on results from human studies, given the paucity of relevant canine studies. A previous study demonstrated that the time course of ICH stages is much faster in rats than in humans.³ Therefore, we hypothesized that the temporal MRI characteristics of evolving stages of canine ICH differ from those of ICH in humans.Advanced MRI techniques may enable clarification of mechanisms that mediate injury after ICH. Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) has already proven useful in the diagnosis and investigation of the natural history of ischemic stroke.⁷ However, the usefulness of those techniques to assess mechanisms of neuronal injury after ICH remains a topic of debate, both in humans and in dogs. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to evaluate the utility of advanced MRI techniques, including DWI, in the diagnosis of canine ICH, by monitoring the temporal changes in MR images relative to the stage of hematoma in affected dogs.     

Spatial and Temporal Characteristics of Normal and Perturbed Vesicle Transport

Efficient intracellular transport is essential for healthy cellular function and structural integrity, and problems in this pathway can lead to neuronal cell death and disease. To spatially and temporally evaluate how transport defects are initiated, we adapted a primary neuronal culture system from Drosophila larval brains to visualize the movement dynamics of several cargos/organelles along a 90 micron axonal neurite over time. All six vesicles/organelles imaged showed robust bi-directional motility at both day 1 and day 2. Reduction of motor proteins decreased the movement of vesicles/organelles with increased numbers of neurite blocks. Neuronal growth was also perturbed with reduction of motor proteins. Strikingly, we found that all blockages were not fixed, permanent blocks that impeded transport of vesicles as previously thought, but that some blocks were dynamic clusters of vesicles that resolved over time. Taken together, our findings suggest that non-resolving blocks may likely initiate deleterious pathways leading to death and degeneration, while resolving blocks may be benign. Therefore evaluating the spatial and temporal characteristics of vesicle transport has important implications for our understanding of how transport defects can affect other pathways to initiate death and degeneration.     

Temporal and Spatial Expression of Hoxa-2 During Murine Palatogenesis

1. Mice homozygous for a targeted mutation of the Hoxa-2 gene are born with a bilateral cleft of the secondary palate associated with multiple head and cranial anomalies and these animals die within 24 hr of birth (Gendron-Maguire et al., 1993; Rijli et al., 1993; Mallo and Gridley, 1996). We have determined the spatial and temporal expression of the Hoxa-2 homeobox protein in the developing mouse palate at embryonic stages E12, E13, E13.5, E14, E14.5, and E15.2. Hoxa-2 is expressed in the mesenchyme and epithelial cells of the palate at E12, but is progressively restricted to the tips of the growing palatal shelves at E13.3. By the E13.5 stage of development, Hoxa-2 protein was found to be expressed throughout the palatal shelf. These observations correlate with palatal shelf orientation and Hoxa-2 protein may play a direct or indirect role in guiding the palatal shelves vertically along side the tongue, starting with the tips of the palatal shelves at E13, followed by the entire palatal shelf at E13.5.4. As development progresses to E14, the stage at which shelf elevation occurs, Hoxa-2 protein is downregulated in the palatal mesenchyme but remains in the medial edge epithelium. Expression of Hoxa-2 continues in the medial edge epithelium until the fusion of opposing palatal shelves.5. By the E15 stage of development, Hoxa-2 is downregulated in the palate and expression is localized in the nasal and oral epithelia.6. In an animal model of phenytoin-induced cleft palate, we report that Hoxa-2 mRNA and protein expression were significantly decreased, implicating a possible functional role of the Hoxa-2 gene in the development of phenytoin-induced cleft palate.7. A recent report by Barrow and Capecchi (1999), has illustrated the importance of tongue posture during palatal shelf closure in Hoxa-2 mutant mice. This along with our new findings of the expression of the Hoxa-2 protein during palatogenesis has shed some light on the putative role of this gene in palate development.     

Spatial and Temporal Variation of Phenanthrene-Degrading Bacteria in Intertidal Sediments

Phenanthrene-degrading bacteria were isolated from a 1-m² intertidal sediment site in Boston Harbor. Samples were taken six times over 2 years. A total of 432 bacteria were isolated and characterized by biochemical testing. When clustered on the basis of phenotypic characteristics, the isolates could be separated into 68 groups at a similarity level of approximately 70%. Several groups (a total of 200 isolates) corresponded to well-characterized species belonging the genera Vibrio and Pseudomonas. Only 51 of the 437 isolates (<11.7% of the total) hybridized to a DNA probe that encodes the upper pathway of naphthalene and phenanthrene degradation in Pseudomonas putida NCIB 9816. A cluster analysis indicated that the species composition of the phenanthrene-degrading community changed significantly from sampling date to sampling date. At one sampling time, 12 6-mm-diameter core subsamples were taken within the 1-m² site to determine the spatial variability of the degrading communities. An analysis of molecular variance, performed with the phenotypic characteristics, indicated that only 6% of the variation occurred among the 12 subsamples, suggesting that the subsamples were almost identical in composition. We concluded that the communities of phenanthrene-degrading bacteria in the sediments are very diverse, that the community structure undergoes significant change with time but does not vary significantly on a spatial scale of centimeters, and that the predominant genes that encode phenanthrene degradation in the communities are not well-characterized.