Wing noises,wing slots,and aggression in New Zealand honeyeaters (Aves: Meliphagidae)

Abstract

Two of New Zealand’s honeyeaters, the tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) and the bellbird (Anthornis melanura) can produce loud wing noises. In both species, modified primary feathers form slots in the wing that presumably make these noises. The slots of bellbirds are similar to those of hummingbirds (Trochilidae). Asymmetries in aggressiveness — as determined from inter- and intraspecific dominance — are closely related to the presence or size of the wing slots.     

The growth and age structure of Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) following its influx to New Zealand waters

The Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) is a predominantly Southeast Pacific Ocean species. It is relatively difficult to determine its age, and multiple studies of its growth off South America have produced markedly different sets of von Bertalanffy parameters. T. murphyi was first identified from New Zealand waters in the mid-1980s and has comprised part of the commercial landings of Trachurus species (along with Trachurus declivis and Trachurus novaezelandiae) since then. Results from 13 years of age determination of New Zealand samples using sectioned otoliths indicate that a partially validated age determination method has been developed, with a precision level (average percentage error) of 4.6%. The best available von Bertalanffy growth parameters for the New Zealand population (sexes combined) are as follows: L_∞, 51.9 cm fork length; K, 0.223 per year; t₀, −0.5 year. Analyses by sex showed that males have a significantly larger L_∞ than females. Estimated annual catch-at-length and catch-at-age distributions from the fishery are presented for 2007–2019. There have been at least two episodes of immigration of T. murphyi from international waters, but little evidence of spawning success to maintain the New Zealand population.     

Revision of genus Argyrophenga (Lepidoptera: Satyridae)

Abstract

The endemic New Zealand genus Argyrophenga Doubleday is revised. The genus is shown to consist of three species, antipodum Doubleday, harrisi n.sp., and janitae n.sp. Wing pattern, wing coloration, and male genitalia of all species are described and illustrated. Keys to species are given for both sexes. Taxonomic conclusions are supported by biometric and distributional data. Flight behaviour is described. A brief comparison is made between Argyrophenga and the other endemic New Zealand satyrid genera.     

Molecular evidence for long-distance dispersal in the New Zealand pteridophyte flora

Aim To examine the relative importance of long‐distance dispersal in shaping the New Zealand pteridophyte (ferns and lycophytes) flora and its relationships with other floras, with the null hypothesis that the extant New Zealand pteridophyte flora has been isolated since New Zealand’s separation from Gondwana. Location New Zealand. Methods rbcL DNA sequences were assembled for 31 New Zealand pteridophyte genera, with each genus represented by one New Zealand species and the most closely related non‐New Zealand species for which data were available. Maximum‐likelihood, maximum‐parsimony, and Bayesian analysis phylograms were constructed and used as input for r 8s molecular dating, along with 23 fossil calibrations. Divergence estimates less than conservatively recent ages for New Zealand’s geological isolation, namely H_o > 30 Ma for pairs involving New Caledonian and Norfolk Island species and H_o > 55 Ma for all others, were taken as rejection of the null hypothesis. Results The null hypothesis was rejected for all pairs except, under some parameter conditions, for those involving the New Zealand species Cardiomanes reniforme, Lindsaea trichomanoides, Loxsoma cunninghamii, Lygodium articulatum, Marattia salicina, and Pteris comans. However, the Lindsaea and Pteris results probably reflect the absence in the analyses of closely related non‐New Zealand samples, while the Marattia divergence was highly contingent on which fossil calibrations were used. Main conclusions Rejection of the null hypothesis for the majority of pairs implies that the extant New Zealand lineage has undergone long‐distance dispersal either into or out of New Zealand. The notion of a long isolation since geological separation can, therefore, be dismissed for much of New Zealand’s pteridophyte flora. The analyses do not identify the direction of the long‐distance dispersal, and these New Zealand lineages could have had vicariant origins with subsequent long‐distance emigration. However, the alternative that many extant New Zealand pteridophyte lineages only arrived by long‐distance immigration after geological isolation seems likely.     

The infectivity and host range of Orgyia anartoides nucleopolyhedrovirus

The painted apple moth (PAM), Teia anartoides (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) made a recent incursion into New Zealand. A nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV), Orgyia anartoides NPV (OranNPV), originally isolated from PAM in Australia, was tested for its pathogenicity to PAM and a range of non‐target insect species found in New Zealand, to evaluate its suitability as a microbial control for this insect invader. Dosage‐mortality tests showed that OranNPV was highly pathogenic to PAM larvae; mean LT₅₀ values for third instars ranged from 17.9 to 8.1 days for doses from 10² to 10⁵ polyhedral inclusion bodies/larva, respectively. The cause of death in infected insects was confirmed as OranNPV. Molecular analysis established that OranNPV can be identified by PCR and restriction digestion, and this process complemented microscopic examination of infected larvae. No lymantriid species occur in New Zealand; however, the virus had no significant effects on species from five other lepidopteran families (Noctuidae, Tortricidae, Geometridae, Nymphalidae and Plutellidae) or on adult honeybees. Thus, all indications from this initial investigation are that OranNPV would be an important tool in the control of PAM in a future incursion of this species into New Zealand.     

BEHAVIORAL THERMOREGULATION OF THE NEW ZEALAND SEA LION (PHOCARCTOS HOOKERI)

Behavioral thermoregulation of New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) was studied at a male haul‐out ground at Papanui Beach, Otago Peninsula, New Zealand. The proportion of time spent by sea lions in each of five postures (prone, curled, oblique, ventral‐up, dorsal‐up) and also with the number of flippers exposed or tucked (hind and fore) at different black‐bulb temperature (T_bb°C) ranges was recorded. Use of prone and curled postures (0–1 flippers exposed) declined as T_bb increased, suggesting that these are adopted to conserve heat; oblique and dorsal‐up postures (3–4 flippers exposed) use increased with T_bb indicating a role in heat dissipation. The transition between heat conserving and heat dissipating postures occurred at about 14°–20°C (T_bb). Both foreflipper and hind flipper exposure increased with T_bb and the trends were similar, but overall hind flipper exposure was 89% of foreflipper exposure. The results show that surface area of flippers exposed to air is largely controlled by postural adjustment. The increase in flipper exposure with T_bb provides evidence of behavioral thermoregulation and that flippers are major sites for heat loss in the New Zealand sea lion, as observed for other otariid species. Nonpostural thermoregulatory behaviors such as flipper waving and sand flipping increased with T_bb, and may provide additional means of dissipating heat. Total body surface areas of six sea lions ranged from 1.72 to 3.39 m² (curvilinear length range from 1.60 to 2.35 m), and total flipper surface area averaged 22.7% of total body surface area. As otariids do not employ their hind limbs for aquatic propulsion, their role in behavioral thermoregulation may provide an explanation for the relatively large size of the hind flippers of the New Zealand sea lion.     

GENETIC AND MORPHOMETRIC DIVERGENCE IN ANCESTRAL EUROPEAN AND DESCENDENT NEW ZEALAND POPULATIONS OF CHAFFINCHES (FRINGILLA COELEBS)

Descendent populations of chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) introduced to New Zealand about 120 years ago were compared with “ancestral” populations in northern Europe and with those in a broader region of Europe (including Iberia) using protein electrophoresis at 42 loci and 12 skeletal measurements. The New Zealand populations exhibit very small scale differentiation in genetics (F_st = 0.040) and morphometrics, and the haphazard pattern of among-population variation does not align with environmental variation nor is it predicted by the geographic proximity of populations. Thus random drift is implicated in the differentiation among the descendent populations. The New Zealand chaffinches have diverged only slightly in morphometrics from an extant population in southern England, and constant heritability rate tests suggest that random drift alone could account for this small shift. In sharp contrast, the European populations are subdivided genetically (F_st = 0.222) and morphometrically, and this subdivision coincides with the Pyrenees mountains between Iberia and northern Europe which act as a barrier to gene flow between these regions. Iberian populations have smaller skulls and longer wings on average than northern European populations and are characterized by high frequencies of alternative common alleles at Ada and Np. Within both the Iberian and northern European regions, however, populations are effectively panmictic in protein-encoding genes, indicating that homogenizing gene flow is apparently extensive enough to prevent among-population differentiation in allozymes by drift. Variation in body size as represented by PC I is related to environmental productivity across Europe, unlike in New Zealand. These observations jointly suggest that longer term adaptive differentiation via selection for optimal body size has evolved in Europe. Because multilocus evolution is expected to proceed slowly in populations subject to the opposing forces of selection and homogenizing gene flow, I argue that local adaptation within “ancestral” populations in northern Europe may still be evolving.     

Polytrichum commune Hedw. and Polytrichadelphus magellanicus (Hedw.) Mitt. used as decorative material on New Zealand Maori cloaks

Abstract

Confirmation of the occurrence of the moss Ptychomnion densifolium on the main islands of New Zealand is provided and the features which separate it from the more common P. aciculare are outlined. A brief account of the history of P. densifolium in New Zealand is given and its morphology there is discussed. A key to the two species in New Zealand is provided and habitat differences between them outlined. New Zealand material differs from type locality (Tristan d' Acunha) material in having longer and more twisted acumens, and in this respect is similar to New Zealand material of P. aciculare. New Zealand populations of P. densifolium are recognisable in having stem leaves reflexed from an oblong sheathing base, and well developed basal leaf plications. It is a relatively widespread species in New Zealand, occurring in mostly upper elevation, open sites.     

An introductory ecological biogeography of the Australo-Pacific Meliphagidae

Abstract

The Meliphagidae, that can readily be defined on tongue characteristics, are a monophyletic group centred in the Australo-Pacific region, but with one African genus (Promerops). The classification of Salomonsen (1967) allows 38 genera and 170 species in the former region, and one genus with two species in the latter. Australia and New Guinea jointly have 23 genera and 108 species, and constitute the centre of diversity of the group. Endemic genera are concentrated in Australia and New Guinea, and around the periphery of the Pacific part of the range (Sulawesi, Bonins, Marianas, Hawaii, New Zealand). The meliphagids are diversified in body size and bill form. They are basically nectarivores and insectivores, with most species combining the two roles to varying degrees. There is a good general correlation between bill form and way of life. A few species feed on trunks and aerial flycatching is well developed in many. Morphological modification is only minor in these instances and the meliphagids as a group remain rather generalised in bodily proportions. A long period of coevolution with Australian plant elements is shown by meliphagids being the major pollinators of several tree and shrub genera.

The group combines monotypic genera with restricted ranges and wide-ranging genera with many species. Of the latter; Myzomela, Lichema, and Philemon are centred in the tropics, and Meliphaga and Phylidonyris in Australia. Most of these co-occur over a wide area, this being favoured by differences in body size and bill morphology.

Comparison of three kinds of meliphagid communities, two typical continental ones, two of isolated forest outlyers in Australia, and six insular Pacific ones, shows the first to be rich (10 and 11 genera, 21 and 17 species), and the second impoverished (6 and 7 genera, 9 and 12 species). Individual Pacific island groups, however, have only 2–5 genera, and 3–6 species. Genus to species ratios are 0.55–0.64 in the major continental communities, but are 1.0 in New Zealand and Samoa.

Morphological distance between species, measured as the percent difference in size between successive members along a size gradient is 5.4 and 5.5% for wing length and 4.9 and 9.3% for bill length in the two continental communities. It increases to 7.8–14.9, and 11.3–12.7%, respectively, in the isolated forest outlyers of Tasmania and southwestern Australia. The figures are 23.0 and 35.0% for wing and bill length in New Zealand, and 41.0 and 51.0% in Fijian forms. This accords with current theory that in impoverished insular environments, size separation of co-occurring species must be greater.

The marked success of the Meliphagidae in the Australo-Pacific region can be attributed to their versatility and adaptibility, and dual role of insectivore and nectarivore in an area exceptionally rich in nectar-producing trees and shrubs.     

The 'Ice Worm' - the Immature Stages,Phylogeny and Biology of the Glacier Midge Zelandochlus (Diptera: Chironomidae)

The previously unknown female and larva for the New Zealand glacier midge, Zealandochlus latipalpis Brundin are described for the first time, and the pupa described more fully than previously. Unlike the male, which is brachypterous, the female has large wings possessing traces of a vein between R₁ and R₄₊₅ uniquely for the subfamily Podonominae. The larvae, known locally as ice-worms, live in meltwater pools and ice caves of the Franz Joseph and Fox glaciers, New Zealand. Cladistic analysis of this highly autapomorphic species results in an unresolved trichotomy Zelandochlus + Parochlus + Podonomus, which is no advance on the suggestion made by Brundin (1966) concerning the relationships. Information is too scanty on many species of the putative related genera, but additional morphological features indicate that there may be a sister group relationship with part of Parochlus.     

Welcome back New Zealand: regional biogeography and Gondwanan origin of three endemic genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi)

Aim Biogeographers have long been intrigued by New Zealand’s biota due to its unique combination of typical ‘continental’ and ‘island’ characteristics. The New Zealand plateau rifted from the former supercontinent Gondwana c. 80 Ma, and has been isolated from other land masses ever since. Therefore, the flora and fauna of New Zealand include lineages that are Gondwanan in origin, but also include a very large number of endemics. In this study, we analyse the evolutionary relationships of three genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi) endemic to New Zealand, both to each other and to their temperate Gondwanan relatives found in Australia, Chile, Sri Lanka and South Africa. Location New Zealand (North Island, South Island and Stewart Island). Methods A total of 94 specimens of the family Pettalidae in the suborder Cyphophthalmi were studied, representing 31 species and subspecies belonging to three endemic genera from New Zealand (Aoraki, Neopurcellia and Rakaia) plus six other members of the family from Chile, South Africa, Sri Lanka and Australia. The phylogeny of these taxa was constructed using morphological and molecular data from five nuclear and mitochondrial genes (18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, 16S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and histone H3, totalling c. 5 kb), which were analysed using dynamic as well as static homology under a variety of optimality criteria. Results The results showed that each of the three New Zealand cyphophthalmid genera is monophyletic, and occupies a distinct geographical region within the archipelago, grossly corresponding to palaeogeographical regions. All three genera of New Zealand mite harvestmen fall within the family Pettalidae with a classic temperate Gondwanan distribution, but they do not render any other genera paraphyletic. Main conclusions Our study shows that New Zealand’s three genera of mite harvestmen are unequivocally related to other members of the temperate Gondwanan family Pettalidae. Monophyly of each genus contradicts the idea of recent dispersal to New Zealand. Within New Zealand, striking biogeographical patterns are apparent in this group of short‐range endemics, particularly in the South Island. These patterns are interpreted in the light of New Zealand’s turbulent geological history and present‐day patterns of forest cover.     

Inference of population subdivision from the VNTR distributions of New Zealanders

A population sample from people of diverse ethnic origins living in New Zealand serves as a database to test methods for inference of population subdivision. The initial null hypothesis, that the population sample is homogeneous across ethnic groups, is easily rejected by likelihood ratio tests. Beyond this, methods for quantifying subdivision can be based on the probability of drawing alleles identical by descent (F _ST ), probabilities of matching multiple locus genotypes, and occurrence of unique alleles. Population genetic theory makes quantitative predictions about the relation betweenF _ST , population sizes, and rates of migration and mutation. Some VNTR loci have mutation rates of 10^–2 per generation, but, contrary to theory, we find no consistent association between the degree of population subdivision and mutation rate. Quantification of population substructure also allows us to relate the magnitudes of genetic distances between ethnic groups in New Zealand to the colonization history of the country. The data suggests that the closest relatives to the Maori are Polynesians, and that no severe genetic bottleneck occurred when the Maori colonized New Zealand. One of the central points of contention regarding the application of VNTR loci in forensics is the appropriate means for estimating match probabilities. Simulations were performed to test the merits of the product rule in the face of subpopulation heterogeneity. Population heterogeneity results in large differences in estimates of multilocus genotype frequencies depending on which subpopulation is used for reference allele frequencies, but, of greater importance for forensic purposes, no five locus genotype had an expected frequency greater than 10^–6. Although this implies that a match with an innocent individual is unlikely, in a large urban area such chance matches are going to occur.Editor's commentsA side-benefit of the collection of DNA data from human populations is the light it may shed on human evolution. The authors discuss the colonization history of New Zealand in the light of such data. From a forensic viewpoint, too much should not be made of the differences between the major ethnic groups within New Zealand, as the forensic community in that country maintains separate databases for Caucasian, Maori and Pacific Islander (Buckletonet al., 1987). It will be of interest in the future to examine subdivision within these groups, as opposed to within the country as a whole. The authors' comments on testing for independence will need to read along with the findings of Zaykinet al. and Maiste and Weir in this volume. The authors had not seen the Budowleet al. (1994) rebuttal to the paper of Kraneet al. (1992).     

A detailed linkage map around an apple scab resistance gene demonstrates that two disease resistance classes both carry the V f gene

A detailed genetic map has been constructed in apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) in the region of the v _f gene. This gene confers resistance to the apple scab fungus Venturia inaequalis (Cooke) Wint. Linkage data on four RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) markers and the isoenzyme marker PGM-1, previously reported to be linked to the v _f gene, are integrated using two populations segregating for resistance to apple scab. Two new RAPD markers linked to v _f (identified by bulked segregant analysis) and a third marker previously reported as being present in several cultivars containing v _f are also placed on the map. The map around v _f now contains eight genetic markers spread over approximately 28 cM, with markers on both sides of the resistance gene. The study indicates that RAPD markers in the region of crab apple DNA introgressed with resistance are often transportable between apple clones carrying resistance from the same source. Analysis of co-segregation of the resistance classes 3A (weakly resistant) and 3B (weakly susceptible) with the linked set of genetic markers demonstrates that progeny of both classes carry the resistance gene.This work was supported in part by grants from the New Zealand Foundation for Research Science and Technology (FoRST) Programme 94-HRT-07-366 and ENZA New Zealand (International)     

Phylogenetic Relationships of the Prodontria (Coleoptera; Scarabaeidae; Subfamily Melolonthinae), Derived from Sequence Variation in the Mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase II Gene

The beetle genus Prodontria is of importance to New Zealand conservation programs. All Prodontria species are brachypterous (having reduced wings), and the genus presents some interesting evolutionary and biogeographic questions that are testable using phylogenetic reconstruction. A phylogeny was produced for 14 flightless Prodontria species, 2 macropterous (fully winged) Odontria species, and single representatives of 2 outgroup genera using sequence data from the mitochondrial COII gene. The data support probable conspecificity of the morphologically similar P. modesta and P. bicolorata but do not support their hypothesized sister-species relationship with the geographically proximate P. lewisi. The alpine P. capito is found to be a paraphyletic group, with the most eastern population diverging after the western populations made their appearance. Many interesting biogeographic disjunctions are here proposed to be anomalous and the result of morphological convergence. The data do not support the idea of a common flightless ancester for Prodontria, but suggest that brachyptery has evolved numerous times. In some instances, this appears to have led to contemporaneous speciation resulting in little resolution of phylogenetic relationships in some parts of the tree. These data allow for a new interpretation of the origin and diversification of the southern New Zealand flightless melolonthine fauna. Multiple speciation events involving wing reduction are suggested to involve at least one widespread flighted ancestor that has given rise to brachypterous forms.     

Conservation status of New Zealand frogs, 2009

Abstract

A reappraisal of the conservation status of the New Zealand frog fauna is presented using the 2008 version of the New Zealand Threat Classification System. Of New Zealand's four extant endemic species, three are judged to be ‘Threatened’ (Leiopelma hamiltoni being ‘Nationally Critical’, and L. pakeka and L. archeyi being ‘Nationally Vulnerable’) and one ‘At Risk’ (L. hochstetteri ‘Declining’). Three Leiopelma species are listed as extinct—they are known from bone deposits in caves throughout the country until some time in the last 1000 years. Three introduced and naturalised Litoria species are abundant in New Zealand although two (L. aurea and L. raniformis) are threatened in their country of origin (Australia). An additional unidentified frog taxon from northern Great Barrier Island is listed as ‘Data Deficient’.     

Nitrate reductase activity of two leafy vegetables as affected by nickel and different nitrogen forms

The author studied the effect of different nickel concentrations (0, 0.4, 40 and 80 μM Ni) on the nitrate reductase (NR) activity of New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia expansa Murr.) and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Justyna) plants supplied with different nitrogen forms (NO₃ ⁻–N, NH₄ ⁺–N, NH₄NO₃). A low concentration of Ni (0.4 μM) did not cause statistically significant changes of the nitrate reductase activity in lettuce plants supplied with nitrate nitrogen (NO₃ ⁻–N) or mixed (NH₄NO₃) nitrogen form, but in New Zealand spinach leaves the enzyme activity decreased and increased, respectively. The introduction of 0.4 μM Ni in the medium containing ammonium ions as a sole source of nitrogen resulted in significantly increased NR activity in lettuce roots, and did not cause statistically significant changes of the enzyme activity in New Zealand spinach plants. At a high nickel level (Ni 40 or 80 μM), a significant decrease in the NR activity was observed in New Zealand spinach plants treated with nitrate or mixed nitrogen form, but it was much more marked in leaves than in roots. An exception was lack of significant changes of the enzyme activity in spinach leaves when plants were treated with 40 μM Ni and supplied with mixed nitrogen form, which resulted in the stronger reduction of the enzyme activity in roots than in leaves. The statistically significant drop in the NR activity was recorded in the aboveground parts of nickel-stressed lettuce plants supplied with NO₃ ⁻–N or NH₄NO₃. At the same time, there were no statistically significant changes recorded in lettuce roots, except for the drop of the enzyme activity in the roots of NO₃ ⁻-fed plants grown in the nutrient solution containing 80 μM Ni. An addition of high nickel doses to the nutrient solution contained ammonium nitrogen (NH₄ ⁺–N) did not affect the NR activity in New Zealand spinach plants and caused a high increase of this enzyme in lettuce organs, especially in roots. It should be stressed that, independently of nickel dose in New Zealand spinach plants supplied with ammonium form, NR activity in roots was dramatically higher than that in leaves. Moreover, in New Zealand spinach plants treated with NH₄ ⁺–N the enzyme activity in roots was even higher than in those supplied with NO₃ ⁻–N.     

The phylogenetic placement and biogeographical origins of the New Zealand stick insects (Phasmatodea)

The Lanceocercata are a clade of stick insects (Phasmatodea) that have undergone an impressive evolutionary radiation in Australia, New Caledonia, the Mascarene Islands and areas of the Pacific. Previous research showed that this clade also contained at least two of the nine New Zealand stick insect genera. We have constructed a phylogeny of the Lanceocercata using 2277 bp of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data to determine whether all nine New Zealand genera are indeed Lanceocercata and whether the New Zealand fauna is monophyletic. DNA sequence data were obtained from mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunits I and II and the nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA and histone subunit 3. These data were subjected to Bayesian phylogenetic inference under a partitioned model and maximum parsimony. The resulting trees show that all the New Zealand genera are nested within a large New Caledonian radiation. The New Zealand genera do not form a monophyletic group, with the genus Spinotectarchus Salmon forming an independent lineage from the remaining eight genera. We analysed Lanceocercata apomorphies to confirm the molecular placement of the New Zealand genera and to identify characters that confirm the polyphyly of the fauna. Molecular dating analyses under a relaxed clock coupled with a Bayesian extension to dispersal‐vicariance analysis was used to reconstruct the biogeographical history for the Lanceocercata. These analyses show that Lanceocercata and their sister group, the Stephanacridini, probably diverged from their South American relatives, the Cladomorphinae, as a result of the separation of Australia, Antarctica and South America. The radiation of the New Caledonian and New Zealand clade began 41.06 million years ago (mya, 29.05–55.40 mya), which corresponds to a period of uplift in New Caledonia. The main New Zealand lineage and Spinotectarchus split from their New Caledonian sister groups 33.72 (23.9–45.62 mya) and 29.9 mya (19.79–41.16 mya) and began to radiate during the late Oligocene and early Miocene, probably in response to a reduction in land area and subsequent uplift in the late Oligocene and early Miocene. We discuss briefly shared host plant patterns between New Zealand and New Caledonia. Because Acrophylla sensu Brock & Hasenpusch is polyphyletic, we have removed Vetilia Stål from synonymy with Acrophylla Gray.     

Incongruence between morphological and molecular markers in the butterfly genus Zizina (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in New Zealand

The butterfly genus Zizina in New Zealand has a complex taxonomic history due to the presence of morphological intermediates between the two species, the endemic Z. oxleyi and the introduced Z. labradus, in a putative hybrid zone on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand. This makes species identification in the field problematic, particularly as the presence of hybrids has not been confirmed. We address this uncertainty through morphological and molecular analyses. Specimens were collected from a range of locations in New Zealand, as well as from Australia, and measurements were made of male genitalia and ventral wing coloration. Two mitochondrial genes (COI, ND5) and three nuclear gene fragments (28S, ITS2 and wingless) were also sequenced for a selection of individuals, and the presence of Wolbachia species in genomic DNA was tested. The two species were separable in morphological space, although there was some overlap, and the contact zone appeared to be around Kaikoura on the east coast of the South Island. Furthermore, specimens from the putative hybrid zone could be classified as Z. oxleyi using morphological characters individually, but not when these were used in a principal component analysis. Molecular analysis showed that there was a mean sequence divergence of 2.0% between two clades for COI, and 4.1% for ND5, but suggested that the contact zone between them was in the north‐west of the South Island. However, there was only a single clade for each of the three nuclear markers. It is thought that this incongruence between morphological and molecular markers is indicative of hybridization which is more extensive than previously thought. However, the possibility that recent speciation has occurred or is occurring is not ruled out.     

Cephaloziella tahora Bever. & Glenny,a new species of Cephaloziella (Jungermanniopsida,Cephaloziellaceae) from eastern Taranaki,New Zealand

Cephaloziella tahora, a new species of Cephaloziella is described and illustrated from a lowland forest habitat in eastern Taranaki in the North Island of New Zealand. It has similarities to six other New Zealand species of Cephaloziella, and appears closest in New Zealand to Cephaloziella aenigmatica R.M.Schust. It is defined by a unique combination of features and distinguished from C. aenigmatica and other New Zealand species by having entire, distant leaves that reach the dorsal stem mid-line, and have large conspicuous hemispherical and hemi-ellipsoidal papillae, underleaves on gemmiparous and gynoecial shoots, and by its dioecy. The addition brings the number of New Zealand species of Cephaloziella to 18, 12 of which are endemic to New Zealand.     

Support for vicariant origins of the New Zealand Onychophora

Aim The distribution of Onychophora across the southern continents has long been considered the result of vicariance events. However, it has recently been hypothesized that New Zealand was completely inundated during the late Oligocene (25–22 Ma) and therefore that the entire biota is the result of long-distance dispersal. We tested this assumption using phylogenetic and molecular dating of DNA sequence data from Onychophora. Location New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, Chile (South America). Methods We obtained DNA sequence data from the nuclear genes 28S and 18S rRNA to reconstruct relationships among species of Peripatopsidae (Onychophora). We performed molecular dating under a Bayesian relaxed clock model with a range of prior distributions using the rifting of South America and South Africa as a calibration. Results Our phylogenetic trees revealed that the New Zealand genera Ooperipatellus and Peripatoides, together with selected Australian genera (Euperipatoides, Phallocephale and an undescribed genus from Tasmania), form a monophyletic group that is the sister group to genera from Chile (Metaperipatus) and South Africa (Peripatopsis and Opisthopatus). The relaxed clock dating analyses yielded mean divergence times from 71.3 to 78.9 Ma for the split of the New Zealand Peripatoides from their Australian sister taxa. The 0.95 Bayesian posterior intervals were very broad and ranged from 24.5 to 137.6 Ma depending on the prior assumptions. The mean divergence of the New Zealand species of Ooperipatellus from the Australian species Ooperipatellus insignis was estimated at between 39.9 and 46.2 Ma, with posterior intervals ranging from 9.5 to 91.6 Ma. Main conclusions The age of Peripatoides is consistent with long-term survival in New Zealand and implies that New Zealand was not completely submerged during the Oligocene. Ooperipatellus is less informative on the question of continuous land in the New Zealand region because we cannot exclude a post-Oligocene divergence. The great age of Peripatoides is consistent with a vicariant origin of this genus resulting from the rifting of New Zealand from the eastern margin of Gondwana and supports the assumptions of previous authors who considered the Onychophora to be a relict component of the New Zealand biota.