Biological control of water hyacinth in California’s Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta: observations on establishment and spread

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach) is a serious invasive weed in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta of California. Three insects: Neochetina eichhorniae Warner and Neochetina bruchi Hustache (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Niphograpta (=Sameodes) albiguttalis (Warren) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) were released during 1982–1987 at four locations for the biological control of water hyacinth. Observations in 1985 suggested that all three species had established. By 2002, water hyacinth populations in the Delta still required an aggressive chemical control campaign and the status of the biological control agents was in question. In late 2002, a field survey to determine the distribution and abundance of the released insects was performed. Water hyacinth plants were collected by boat in the main water channels and from land at smaller sloughs and examined for insects. In total, 27 sites with water hyacinth distributed across the Delta were examined of which 21 had weevils. Weevil abundance ranged from 0 to 10.9 weevils per plant, with an average of 0.93 (±0.47 SEM) adult weevils per plant. All weevils (n?=?518) were identified as N. bruchi. No N. eichhorniae were recovered and no larvae or evidence of larval feeding by N. albiguttalis were observed. A total of 322 weevils were examined for microsporidia and none was found infected, indicating an infection rate of less than 1%. These results suggest that N. bruchi may be the only established biological control agent of water hyacinth in the Delta and that infection by microsporidia does not appear to be limiting its population abundance.     

Effect of Silt Coverage of Water Hyacinth Roots on Pupation of Neochetina eichhorniae Warner and N. bruchi Hustache (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Observations under field conditions in Bangalore showed that release of Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) brought about successful control of the water hyacinth in water bodies where the plants were free-floating. However, in situations where the plants were partly anchored, suppression of the weed was achieved only 8 years after insect release. Studies carried out under glasshouse conditions, in which plants with free-floating and silt-covered roots were exposed to Neochetina spp., showed that fully grown larvae were incapable of pupating on silted roots of the water hyacinth. This resulted in reduced adult emergence of N. eichhorniae and N. bruchi, indicating that delayed suppression of water hyacinth in silted tanks may be due to the low population build-up of the weevils.     

Development and Degeneration of Flight Muscles in Neochetina eichhorniae (Coleoptera; Curculionidae), Potential Biocontrol Agent of the Aquatic Weed, Eichorniae crassipes

The water hyacinth weevil, Neochetina eichhorniae, is an effective biological control agent of the aquatic weed Eichorniae crassipes. The adults under field conditions have degenerated indirect flight muscles that explains their inability to fly. A study on the factors initiating flight muscle development in adults was carried out. Among the various abiotic factors studied, density of weevils per plant and high temperature in presence of food initiated and accelerated flight muscle development. Absence of food did not influence muscle development. No inter-relationship between flight muscle development and degeneration could be observed.     

Toxic effect of herbicides used for water hyacinth control on two insects released for its biological control in South Africa

The integrated control of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae) has become necessary in South Africa, as biological control alone is perceived to be too slow in controlling the weed. In total, seven insect biological control agents have been released on water hyacinth in South Africa. At the same time, herbicides are applied by the water authorities in areas where the weed continues to be troublesome. This study investigated the assumption that the two control methods are compatible by testing the direct toxicity of a range of herbicide formulations and surfactants on two of the biological control agents released against water hyacinth, the weevil, Neochetina eichhorniae Warner (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and the water hyacinth mirid, Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) (Hemiptera: Miridae). A number of the formulations used resulted in significant mortality of the mirid and the weevil. Products containing 2,4-D amine and diquat as active ingredients caused higher mortality of both agents (up to 80% for the mirid) than formulations containing glyphosate. Furthermore, when surfactants were added to enhance herbicide efficiency, it resulted in increased toxicity to the insects. We recommend that glyphosate formulations should be used in integrated control programmes, and that surfactants be avoided in order to reduce the toxic nature of spray formulations to the insect biological control agents released against water hyacinth.     

The effects of insect–insect interactions on the performance of three biological control agents released against water hyacinth

Insect–insect interactions can have implications for biological control programmes when multiple agent species are released. In many cases there is an increase in the efficacy when more than one species is used; however, there is a possibility that releasing an additional species into a programme could have a negative effect. The interactions between three arthropod agents of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach, Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho), Neochetina bruchi Hustache and Neochetina eichhorniae Warner were investigated in an experiment to measure the impact that pairwise combinations of the insects may have on their performance. There was a significant interaction between the mirid E. catarinensis and the weevil N. eichhorniae, with significantly fewer weevil feeding scars when in combination with the mirid (approximately 0.2 scars per cm²) than when alone (approximately 0.4 scars per cm²). There were also slightly fewer petioles mined by N. eichhorniae when in combination with the mirid. Interestingly there was a negative interaction between the two weevil species when in combination, with the number of feeding scars being significantly lower per individual when the two species were in combination. None of the insects performed significantly better when in combination with another insect, however, the mirid was never negatively affected by the presence of either weevil species. The interactions observed between the insects tested were identifiable but subtle and are unlikely to have implications on establishment or performance of the insects in the introduced range, South Africa.     

Importation,releases, and establishment ofNeochetina spp. (Col.: Curculionidae) for the biological control of water hyacinth,Ecchhornia crassipes (Lil.: Pontederiaceae), in Benin,West Africa

Water hyacinth,Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae) was first reported in Bénin in 1977 and about 10 years later became the major floating water weed in the south east, obstructing boat traffic and fisheries. Water hyacinth multiplies in permanently fresh water in the swampy upper reaches of the Sô River and in tributaries of the Ouémé River. From there it is moved by wind and water flow to the coastal lagoons. The coastal lagoons are brackish during the dry season and water hyacinth eventually dies. In 1991,Neochetina eichhorniae (Warner) (Col.: Curculionidae) of South American origin was imported from Australia via quarantine in Britain to Bénin. A small infestation of the fungusBeauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. (Hyphomycetes) was eliminated from the colony before release by sterilizing eggs and rearing a fungus-free generation. Between late 1991 and mid 1993, about 23,900N. eichhorniae were released at 11 localities along the Ouémé River and in the head waters of the Sô River. Regular monitoring revealed feeding scars by adults on leaves and tunnelling by larvae in petioles at all release sites. By October 1993,N. eichhorniae had spread up to 20 km from some release sites.Neochetina bruchi Hustache was imported in 1992. A total of about 5,700 weevils has been released in six localities since mid 1992. Recoveries of offspring were made in all but one locality. Despite the negative impact of water flow, wind, penetration of salt water, and removal of infested water hyacinth by fishermen,N. eichhorniae andN. bruchi are established in Bénin in a situation typical for coastal West Africa.     

Observations on the effect of the weevils Neochetina eichhorniae Warner and Neochetina bruchi Hustache on the growth of water hyacinth

Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms. is an aquatic weed that infests most of the White Nile system in the Sudan. Serious economical and ecological problems are caused by this weed. The two weevils Neochetina eichhorniae and Neochetina bruchi were imported and released in an attempted biological control against the weed. The adults of these weevils attack the plant and feed by removing tissues from the leaf pseudolamina and petioles. The larvae tunnel inside the petioles and the crown. The optimum temperature for feeding and development of both species is 25° C. Results obtained from stocking hyacinth plants with adults and larvae of both species separately revealed that N. bruchi is more efficient in checking the growth of the plant. The progeny of a pair of N. bruchi and N. eichhorniae reared separately on 41 hyacinth plants for a period of 61 days (one generation period) reduced their population growth by 25.4% and 12.7% respectively. The progeny of both species in a mixed culture reduced the growth of the plants by 22.5% in the same period, while in the control the population of the plants increased 136.6%.     

Deleterious effect of herbicides on waterhyacinth biocontrol agents Neochetina bruchi and Alternaria alternata

The integration of biological and herbicidal methods is advocated to manage waterhyacinth, but this can only be achieved when herbicides are nontoxic to the biocontrol agent. Therefore, laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the toxic effect of herbicides on the insect biocontrol agent, the waterhyacinth weevil, Neochetina bruchi Hustache, and phytopathogen, Alternaria alternata, with two commonly used herbicides, glyphosate and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid at three recommended doses. The herbicides were sprayed on the waterhyacinth weevils and added to the nutrient media of A. alternata. 2,4-D caused higher weevil mortality (6.7, 13.3 and 15.6%) as compared to glyphosate (3.3, 5.6 and 11.1%), at three doses over 72 h. There was also a decrease in feeding in the herbicide treated leaves. When the weevils were allowed to move freely between the herbicide treated and untreated plants, higher orientation of the weevils was found on the untreated waterhyacinth than on the treated ones. Neither of the two herbicides actually killed the fungus but both inhibited its growth. Glyphosate though, delayed mycelial growth yet stimulated sporulation while 2,4-D inhibited both growth and sporulation. Glyphosate at low concentration did not affect the virulence of A. alternata, while fungi grown on 2,4-D amended plates lost their virulence.     

Weevil borne microbes contribute as much to the reduction of photosynthesis in water hyacinth as does herbivory

Arthropods released for weed biocontrol can have effects other than simply removing biomass and frequently decrease photosynthetic rate more than can be attributed to the mere loss of photosynthetic surface area. Some of this effect may result because biological control agents facilitate the transfer and ingress of deleterious microbes into plant tissues on which they feed. We evaluated this facilitation effect using water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and a weevil (Neochetina eichhorniae) and compared the reductions in photosynthetic rates between leaves subject to herbivory by adult weevils sterilized with 3.5% chlorine bleach, to those that were unsterilized. The results showed that weevils carried both fungi and bacteria, transferred these to leaves on which they fed, and that microbes and biomass removal contributed almost equally to the 37% decrease in photosynthetic productivity. Hence, maximising the effectiveness of using arthropods that damage leaf surfaces for biocontrol requires the presence of microorganisms that are deleterious to plants.     

The effect of two biological control agents, the weevil Neochetina eichhorniae and the mirid Eccritotarsus catarinensis on water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes , grown in culture with water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes

We assessed the effect of two biological control agents, the mirid Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) and the weevil Neochetina eichhorniae (Warner), singly or in combination, on the competitive ability of their host plant, water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub., grown in a screen house, in competition with another aquatic plant (Pistia stratiotes L.). Water hyacinth plant growth characteristics measured included fresh weight, leaf and petiole lengths, number of inflorescences produced, and new shoots. Without herbivory, water hyacinth was 18 times more competitive than water lettuce (across all experimental combinations of initial plant densities), as estimated from fresh weights. Both insect species, singly or in combination, reduced water hyacinth plant growth characteristics. E. catarinensis alone was less damaging than the weevil and under normal conditions, i.e., floating water hyacinth, is not expected to increase control of water hyacinth beyond that of the weevil. When combined with the weevil, half the inoculum of weevils and half the inoculum of mirids produced the same growth reduction as the full inoculum of the weevil. Under conditions where the weevils are not effective because water hyacinths are seasonally rooted in mud, the mirid, which lives entirely on leaves, should become a useful additional biological control agent. Handling Editor: John Scott.     

Impacts of a sub-lethal dose of glyphosate on water hyacinth nutrients and its indirect effects on Neochetina weevils

A sub-lethal dose of a herbicide under field conditions was applied to determine if it stimulates an increase in water hyacinth nutrients, thereby increasing feeding intensity by Neochetina spp. weevils used as biocontrol agents of the weed. Nitrogen (N) and carbon (C) were measured and compared between sprayed plants and control plants. At one site (Delta Park), N levels were lower in the sprayed plants compared to the control plants both in the leaves and the crown. At the second site (Farm Dam), leaf N was also lower in the sprayed plants than in the control plants, while no difference was found in crown N. Mean number of feeding scars per cm² at Delta Park was significantly higher on the sprayed plants compared to the control plants, while no significant difference was found at Farm Dam. At Delta Park, there was no correlation, however, between the number of weevil feeding scars and leaf N or C:N ratio in sprayed plants. In conclusion, the sub-lethal dose of glyphosate did not directly result in an increase in weevil feeding intensity but it can be recommended in an integrated control system to retard water hyacinth growth while conserving the weevil population.     

农药诱导害虫再猖獗机制

害虫再猖獗是农林害虫防治中出现的普遍现象,包括生态再猖獗和生理再猖獗.前者的机制主要是药剂削弱了自然控制作用,后者主要是药剂引起害虫的毒物兴奋效应及补偿作用(刺激产卵).作者团队最新研究证明,药剂刺激产卵是由于药剂激活了脂肪体RNA转录水平,使卵黄蛋白基因表达量显著上调;两性交配昆虫药剂同样刺激雄性生殖并能通过交配传导...     

The effect of targeted high‐threat weed control on wet forest understorey vegetation in the Central Highlands region,Victoria

The effective control of highly invasive weeds in Australia is an important conservation management action. In this study, we monitored the outcome of herbicide control on high‐threat weeds in the wet forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria. Twenty‐two control (no weed control) and 32 treatment (weed control) plots were surveyed annually over 24 months. Initial results show that weed cover and frequency decreased substantially in response to weed control; however, it is too early to determine the response of native species. We recommend that herbicide control and the associated monitoring programme be continued, and depending on the outcomes, data should be used to develop a more integrated management strategy.     

洞庭湖区东方田鼠种群暴发期间的行为特征观察

2007年6月下旬洞庭湖区东方田鼠(Microtus fortis calamorum)再度暴发,作者观察到其种群暴发期间的迁移、栖息与取食行为具有典型的"逃难"与临时"集群"特征,大多数东方田鼠在迁移过程中死亡,迁到大堤的鼠聚集在大石下、木头下、矮灌木和草丛等较隐蔽场所,一个月后扩散到农田和荒地中,多扩散到杂草茂盛的荒地内。迁移过程中不仅取食农作物,而且取食老树皮等,农作物损失严重。了解其在迁移期间的行为特征,可为了解东方田鼠的生活史适应特性和防控东方田鼠危害提供依据。     

长期稻鸭共作对稻田杂草群落组成及物种多样性的影响

2000~2003年连续4年研究了稻鸭共作条件下田间杂草群落的特征及其动态变化规律。结果表明,在长期稻鸭共作条件下,田间杂草密度逐年降低,下降趋势符合阻滞模型y=k+a·e^bx,模型参数b反映了杂草种群的下降速率。在稻田6种主要杂草中,水虱草(Fimbristylis miliaceae)、陌上菜(Lindernia procumbens)、丁香蓼(Ludwigia prostrata)种群数量降低较快,鸭舌草(Monochoria vaginalis)、异型莎草(Cyperus difformis)次之,稗(Echinochloa crusgalli)最慢。稻鸭共作使稻田杂草群落的物种多样性持续降低,群落均匀度提高,群落相似性与稻鸭共作前相比逐年降低。说明稻鸭共作改变了田间杂草的群落结构,有利于限制杂草的发生危害。随着稻鸭共作的连年进行,对田间杂草的控制效果逐渐上升,4年后达99%以上。稻鸭共作是稻田替代化学除草的一种非常有效的生物、生态控草措施,具有显著的经济和生态效益。     

Aspects of herbicide activity and persistence under low level polyethylene covers

In an experiment prepared in autumn, weed numbers were not affected by covering the soil with clear perforated polyethylene. Weed growth was enhanced, however, and the fresh weight at the time of polyethylene removal in spring was more than three times greater on the covered compared with the uncovered areas. In a similar experiment prepared in spring, covering with perforated polyethylene increased weed numbers by a factor of two and weed fresh weight by a factor of seven. The performance of a number of herbicides used in carrots, in terms of percentage reduction in weed number and weed fresh weight, was similar under covers and in the open. The most effective weed control was achieved with broad-spectrum herbicide treatments, particularly under the polyethylene, since surviving weed seedlings grew rapidly in the protected environment. When weed control was good, covering enhanced carrot yield. Measurement of the distribution of herbicide residues in the soil demonstrated that persistence was increased and movement in the soil decreased by covering with polyethylene.     

Differential resurgence and response elimination

Resurgence refers to the transient recovery of previously reinforced, but presently not reinforced, responding when more recently reinforced responding is extinguished. The primary purpose of our research was to determine how differential resurgence results from the procedures used to eliminate that responding. There were three conditions in each of five experiments. In Condition 1, key pecking by pigeons was maintained under a two-component multiple variable-interval (VI) 30-s VI 30-s schedule. In Condition 2, this pecking was eliminated in different ways across components. In Condition 3, extinction was in effect for all responses, and resurgence of key pecking was compared across components. These three conditions were repeated for most pigeons, and the procedures used to eliminate responding in Condition 2 varied across experiments. In Experiment 1, there was greater resurgence, and an earlier onset of it, after a differential-reinforcement-of-other-behavior (DRO) schedule than after a VI schedule was correlated with pecking an alternative key. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that the differential resurgence in Experiment 1 probably was not due to conditional stimulus control or the periodicity of food delivery, respectively. In Experiment 4, there was no systematic difference in resurgence after either a DRO schedule or a VI schedule correlated with treadle pressing. In Experiment 5, there was greater resurgence, and/or an earlier onset of it, after a VI schedule correlated with treadle pressing than after a VI schedule correlated with pecking an alternative key. Taken together, the results showed that the reinforcement of an alternative key-peck response was the most effective means of reducing subsequent key-peck resurgence. The relation of these results to an understanding of resurgence is discussed.     

稻田水面漂浮的杂草种子种类及动态

为了揭示杂草种子的漂浮动态,并为探寻生态控草方法提供理论依据,我们于2005年6-11月,在南京沧波门稻作区调查了水稻种植前及生长后期田问杂草群落以及稻田灌水期间水面漂浮的杂草种子的种类及漂浮时间.结果表明,在水稻种植前及生长后期田间出现有15科24种杂草;可漂浮于水面的杂草种子有17科26种,与田间发生的杂草种类相同的共有18种,占所有32种杂草的56.25%.这些杂草主要隶属于禾本科、蓼科、毛茛科、报春花科、莎草科、菊科和雨久花科.田埂附近漂浮的杂草种类及种子数量均高于田中间;各类杂草种子的漂浮能力不一,其中菵草(Beckmannia syzigachne)、泽珍珠菜(Lysimachia candida)、茴茴蒜(Ranunculus chinensis)、齿果酸模(Rumex dentatus)、蛇床(Cnidium monnieri)、鳢肠(Eclipta prostrata)和看麦娘(Alopecurus aequalis)等在田间水面漂浮能力较强.漂浮期间杂草种子除多集中于田埂附近,也附着于稻稞周围,并有互相结联的趋势.从整体上看,杂草种子漂浮2天后骤降,8天后基本全部沉降.显然,稻田生境的杂草种子大多可以漂浮于水面传播扩散.因此在灌水早期采取过滤或清除水上漂浮杂草种子可以减少杂草种子的输入和加速杂草种子从田间输出,减少杂草发生基数.     

稻鸭共作及其它控草措施对稻田杂草群落的影响

运用群落生态学方法研究了稻鸭共作、人工除草、化学除草3种控草措施对稻田杂草群落特征的影响及其对田间杂草的控制作用.结果表明,稻鸭共作显著降低了田间杂草的发生密度,对稻田主要杂草鸭舌草(Monochoriavaginalis)、异型莎草(Cyperusdifformis)、矮慈姑(Sagittariapygmaea)的防效均达到95%以上,总体控草效果显著优于化学除草和人工除草.稻鸭共作使稻田杂草群落的物种丰富度及Shannon-Wiener多样性指数略有降低,但Pielou均匀度指数显著提高,表明群落物种组成有了很大的改变,降低了原来优势杂草的发生危害.在不同控草措施作用下,稻田杂草群落的结构组成也发生了一定的变化,稻鸭共作区群落组成为陌上菜(Linderniaprocumbens)+异型莎草+水虱草(Fimbristylismiliacea),Whittaker群落指数显著高于化学除草、人工除草及对照区,表明稻鸭共作对田间杂草群落结构影响较大.从Sorensen群落相似性指数及以其为距离测度指标的聚类分析结果中也可得到同样的结论.