Covariance of preference and performance on normal and novel hosts in a locally monophagous and locally polyphagous butterfly population

Covariance between preference and performance was quantified for Papilio glaucus strains derived from a locally monophagous Florida population and a locally polyphagous Ohio population. I used two-choice assays to assess relative host preferences of mothers for plant species that represent reciprocal normal and novel hosts for each population (i.e., Liriodendron tulipifera and Magnolia virginiana) and a split-brood design to quantify relative performance of their progeny on each host. Covariance between preference and proxies of performance was detected independently within each population, which is a level of genetic structure at which such covariance has rarely been documented. These results support the hypothesis that preference-performance covariance can exist in populations that have no obvious internal host-associated structure. In the Ohio strain, all proxies of performance (larval duration, pupal mass, relative growth rate, and survival) were significantly correlated with relative preference for the normal host, L. tulipifera. In the Florida strain, however, only pupal mass was correlated with maternal preference, and this correlation was not in the direction expected. Progeny that attained the heaviest mass were derived from mothers that preferred L. tulipifera, the locally rare host. The nature of the preference-performance links was not in the manner predicted by conventional optimal oviposition theory, whereby host-associated tradeoffs have been considered an implicit element. Relative performance was congruent across hosts, regardless of whether mothers preferred L. tulipifera, M. virginiana, or neither host. After considering possible genetic and nongenetic explanations that could account for preference-performance covariance in P. glaucus, I conclude that this covariance has a genetic basis. Likely, multiple genetic control mechanisms (e.g., pleiotropy and co-adaptation) integrate at the level of different trait combinations and/or a particular trait combination to generate observed patterns.     

Divergence in the ovipositional behavior of the Papilio glaucus group

This study contrasts the ovipositional profiles of four members of the Papilio glaucus group, P. glaucus , P. multicaudatus , P. canadensis , and P. rutulus. We used seven choice oviposition bioassays containing leaves from hosts in seven plant families utilized by members of the P. glaucus group. Specifically, we contrast the overall ovipositional profiles of these species and their acceptance of a host in a novel plant family ( Populus tremuloides : Salicaceae) and a host in a putatively ancestral host plant family ( Liriodendron tulipifera : Magnoliaceae). Significant differences were observed between the ovipositional profiles of P. glaucus and P. multicaudatus relative to each other and to P. canadensis and P. rutulus. In contrast, no significant differences were observed between the ovipositional profiles of P. canadensis and P. rutulus , which were also the only species that accepted P. tremuloides. Unlike the acceptance of P. tremuloides , the acceptance of L. tulipifera was present throughout the group despite the inability of the larvae of most species in the group to utilize this host. These results support the prediction of the "hierarchical threshold model" that ancestral host plants are likely to be retained in the ovipositional hierarchy while novel hosts should only be accepted by derived populations.     

MAINTENANCE OF ECOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT GENETIC VARIATION IN THE TIGER SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY THROUGH DIFFERENTIAL SELECTION AND GENE FLOW

Differential selection in a heterogeneous environment is thought to promote the maintenance of ecologically significant genetic variation. Variation is maintained when selection is counterbalanced by the homogenizing effects of gene flow and random mating. In this study, we examine the relative importance of differential selection and gene flow in maintaining genetic variation in Papilio glaucus. Differential selection on traits contributing to successful use of host plants (oviposition preference and larval performance) was assessed by comparing the responses of southern Ohio, north central Georgia, and southern Florida populations of P. glaucus to three hosts: Liriodendron tulipifera, Magnolia virginiana, and Prunus serotina. Gene flow among populations was estimated using allozyme frequencies from nine polymorphic loci. Significant genetic differentiation was observed among populations for both oviposition preference and larval performance. This differentiation was interpreted to be the result of selection acting on Florida P. glaucus for enhanced use of Magnolia, the prevalent host in Florida. In contrast, no evidence of population differentiation was revealed by allozyme frequencies. F_ST-values were very small and Nm, an estimate of the relative strengths of gene flow and genetic drift, was large, indicating that genetic exchange among P. glaucus populations is relatively unrestricted. The contrasting patterns of spatial differentiation for host-use traits and lack of differentiation for electrophoretically detectable variation implies that differential selection among populations will be counterbalanced by gene flow, thereby maintaining genetic variation for host-use traits.     

Connectivity of Caribbean coral populations: complementary insights from empirical and modelled gene flow

Understanding patterns of connectivity among populations of marine organisms is essential for the development of realistic, spatially explicit models of population dynamics. Two approaches, empirical genetic patterns and oceanographic dispersal modelling, have been used to estimate levels of evolutionary connectivity among marine populations but rarely have their potentially complementary insights been combined. Here, a spatially realistic Lagrangian model of larval dispersal and a theoretical genetic model are integrated with the most extensive study of gene flow in a Caribbean marine organism. The 871 genets collected from 26 sites spread over the wider Caribbean subsampled 45.8% of the 1900 potential unique genets in the model. At a coarse scale, significant consensus between modelled estimates of genetic structure and empirical genetic data for populations of the reef-building coral Montastraea annularis is observed. However, modelled and empirical data differ in their estimates of connectivity among northern Mesoamerican reefs indicating that processes other than dispersal may dominate here. Further, the geographic location and porosity of the previously described east-west barrier to gene flow in the Caribbean is refined. A multi-prong approach, integrating genetic data and spatially realistic models of larval dispersal and genetic projection, provides complementary insights into the processes underpinning population connectivity in marine invertebrates on evolutionary timescales.     

Allozyme diversity in Pinus virginiana (Pinaceae): intraspecific and interspecific comparisons

Two of the four members of subsection Contortae of the genus Pinus occur in the southeastern United States: Pinus virginiana, which ranges throughout the southern and central Appalachian Mountains, and P. clausa, which is restricted to Florida and southern Alabama. We examined allozyme variation within P. virginiana and genetic relationships between this species and the two varieties of P. clausa (var. clausa and var. immuginata). P. virginiana maintains more genetic diversity at both the species (Hes = 0.139) and population (Hep = 0.128) levels than the other three species in the subsection, which may reflect the combination of its widespread distribution and the absence of cone serotiny. Genetic differentiation among populations in P. virginiana was relatively low (GST = 0.053), but significant contrasts in allozyme frequencies and genetic diversity were apparent between populations to the northwest vs. outheast of the Appalachian Mountains. These regional differences likely resulted initially from historical processes that occurred during the Pleistocene and early Holocene, and have been reinforced by modern selective pressures and barriers to gene flow. The mean genetic distance between populations of P. virginiana and P. clausa (D = 0.071) was greater than that between populations of the two varieties of P. clausa (D = 0.012), which suggests that the two varieties diverged at some point after the separation of the two species.     

Quantification and reduction of bias from sampling larvae to infer population and landscape genetic structure

A well-designed sampling scheme is critical for obtaining accurate results from population genetic studies. Larval samples contain only the genetic material of successful breeders, often of a single year, and may be biased towards particular families. To quantify the bias of using larval samples to infer population and landscape genetic structure and explore how this bias may be reduced using sibship analysis, we analysed eight microsatellite loci from 484 tissue samples of larvae and adults of Columbia spotted frogs (Rana luteiventris) and long-toed salamanders (Ambystoma macrodactylum) at nine breeding sites in north Idaho. Differences in allele frequencies between adult and larval samples were not detected after full-siblings were removed from the larval data set for Columbia spotted frogs; for long-toed salamanders, these differences remained at two out of four ponds. Data from Columbia spotted frog larvae indicated higher levels of differentiation among populations (median difference in F_ST = 0.020, P < 0.01), as predicted by population genetic theory, whereas data from larval samples of long-toed salamanders showed some evidence of lower levels of differentiation among populations (median difference in F_ST = 0.012, P = 0.06). For both species, removing all but one individual from each full-sibling family led to parameter estimates that were closer to those calculated from adult samples for both population and landscape genetic measures. Removal of full-siblings is likely to improve estimates of population genetic parameters; however, knowledge of the species’ breeding system is essential for understanding additional sources of bias when inferring population genetic structure from larval samples.     

The genetic structure of female life history in D. melanogaster: comparisons among populations

Two questions were addressed: (1) What is the genetic variance-covariance structure of a suite of four female life history traits in D. melanogaster? and (2) Does the genetic architecture of these traits differ among populations? Three populations of D. melanogaster were studied. Genetic variances and covariances were estimated by sib analysis three times for each population: immediately upon establishment of populations in the laboratory, and subsequently after approximately 6 months and 2 years of laboratory culture. Entire genetic variance-covariance matrices, as well as their individual components, were compared between populations by means of likelihood ratio tests. All traits studied were significantly heritable in at least one-half of estimates. Despite large sample sizes, additive genetic covariances were for the most part not statistically significant, and only two significant negative covariance estimates were obtained throughout the experiments. Therefore, these experiments provide little support for evolutionary life history theories that are based on negative genetic correlations among life history components. Neither do they support the idea that genetic variance for fitness components is maintained by trade-offs. Evidence suggests that the G matrix of one population was initially different from those of the other two populations. Those differences disappeared after 2 years of laboratory culture. At the level of individual (co)variance components, there were relatively few differences among populations, and the overall impression was that the three populations had generally similar genetic architectures for the traits studied.     

It's about time: divergence, demography, and the evolution of developmental modes in marine invertebrates

Differences in larval developmental mode are predicted to affect ecological and evolutionary processes ranging from gene flow and population bottlenecks to rates of population recovery from anthropogenic disturbance and capacity for local adaptation. The most powerful tests of these predictions use comparisons among species to ask how phylogeographic patterns are correlated with the evolution and loss of prolonged planktonic larval development. An important and largely untested assumption of these studies is that interspecific differences in population genetic structure are mainly caused by differences in dispersal and gene flow (rather than by differences in divergence times among populations or changes in effective population sizes), and that species with similar patterns of spatial genetic variation have similar underlying temporal demographic histories. Teasing apart these temporal and spatial patterns is important for understanding the causes and consequences of evolutionary changes in larval developmental mode. New analytical methods that use the coalescent history of allelic diversity can reveal these temporal patterns, test the strength of traditional population-genetic explanations for variation in spatial structure based on differences in dispersal, and identify strongly supported alternative explanations for spatial structure based on demographic history rather than on gene flow alone. We briefly review some of these recent analytical developments, and show their potential for refining ideas about the correspondence between the evolution of larval developmental mode, population demographic history, and spatial genetic variation.     

Genetic population structure of the endemic fourline wrasse (Larabicus quadrilineatus) suggests limited larval dispersal distances in the Red Sea

The connectivity among marine populations is determined by the dispersal capabilities of adults as well as their eggs and larvae. Dispersal distances and directions have a profound effect on gene flow and genetic differentiation within species. Genetic homogeneity over large areas is a common feature of coral reef fishes and can reflect high dispersal capability resulting in high levels of gene flow. If fish larvae return to their parental reef, gene flow would be restricted and genetic differentiation could occur. Larabicus quadrilineatus (Labridae) is considered as an endemic fish species of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The juveniles of this species are cleaner fish that feed on ectoparasites of other fishes. Here, we investigated the genetic population structure and gene flow in L. quadrilineatus among five locations in the Red Sea to infer connectivity among them. To estimate genetic diversity, we analysed 369 bp of 237 mitochondrial DNA control region sequences. Haplotype and nucleotide diversities were higher in the southern than in the northern Red Sea. Analysis of molecular variance (amova) detected the highest significant genetic variation between northern and central/southern populations (Phi(CT) = 0.01; P < 0.001). Migration analysis revealed a several fold higher northward than southward migration, which could be explained by oceanographic conditions and spawning season. Even though the Phi(ST) value of 0.01 is rather low and implies a long larval dispersal distance, estimates based on the isolation-by-distance model show a very low mean larval dispersal distance (0.44-5.1 km) compared to other studies. In order to enable a sustainable ornamental fishery on the fourline wrasse, the results of this study suggest that populations in the northern and southern Red Sea should be managed separately as two different stocks. The rather low larval dispersal distance of about 5 km needs to be considered in the design of marine protected areas to enable connectivity and self-seeding.     

Genetic evidence for `leaky' cohorts in the semivoltine stonefly Peltoperla tarteri (Plecoptera: Peltoperlidae)

1. Genetic techniques are being used increasingly to address questions about dispersal and gene flow of freshwater invertebrates. However, population genetic structure can be affected by factors other than dispersal. Many stream insects have long life cycles that result in the simultaneous existence of multiple cohorts throughout the larval development period. If larval development is fixed, successive cohorts may be reproductively isolated and, as a result, genetically distinct. In such cases, significant levels of genetic differentiation between cohorts could confound estimates of dispersal based on population genetic structure.
2.  Peltoperla tarteri is a stonefly that can be abundant in Appalachian headwater streams. Although P. tarteri is univoltine at the type locality (Big Paint Hollow, WV, U.S.A.), the study populations in southwestern Virginia, U.S.A., were semivoltine. This semivoltine life cycle results in the simultaneous existence of multiple cohorts with the potential for significant genetic differentiation among them.
3. Levels of genetic differentiation among P. tarteri cohorts were analysed with mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data from the non-coding origin of replication or `control' region from 93 individuals from two successive cohorts (collected in 1998 and 1999).
4. Analysis of molecular variance ( AMOVA ) indicated no genetic differentiation among cohorts ( F _ST=0.0), and gene flow among cohorts was very high ( Nm =∞).
5. High levels of gene flow among cohorts suggest that larval development of P. tarteri is not fixed. Gene flow among cohorts most likely occurs as a result of a cohort split in which some individuals complete development in one or three years instead of two.     

Phylogeography of Camellia taliensis (Theaceae) inferred from chloroplast and nuclear DNA: insights into evolutionary history and conservation

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: As one of the most important but seriously endangered wild relatives of the cultivated tea, Camellia taliensis harbors valuable gene resources for tea tree improvement in the future. The knowledge of genetic variation and population structure may provide insights into evolutionary history and germplasm conservation of the species. RESULTS: Here, we sampled 21 natural populations from the species' range in China and performed the phylogeography of C. taliensis by using the nuclear PAL gene fragment and chloroplast rpl32-trnL intergenic spacer. Levels of haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity detected at rpl32-trnL (h = 0.841; pi = 0.00314) were almost as high as at PAL (h = 0.836; pi = 0.00417). Significant chloroplast DNA population subdivision was detected (GST = 0.988; NST = 0.989), suggesting fairly high genetic differentiation and low levels of recurrent gene flow through seeds among populations. Nested clade phylogeographic analysis of chlorotypes suggests that population genetic structure in C. taliensis has been affected by habitat fragmentation in the past. However, the detection of a moderate nrDNA population subdivision (GST = 0.222; NST = 0.301) provided the evidence of efficient pollen-mediated gene flow among populations and significant phylogeographical structure (NST > GST; P < 0.01). The analysis of PAL haplotypes indicates that phylogeographical pattern of nrDNA haplotypes might be caused by restricted gene flow with isolation by distance, which was also supported by Mantel's test of nrDNA haplotypes (r = 0.234, P < 0.001). We found that chlorotype C1 was fixed in seven populations of Lancang River Region, implying that the Lancang River might have provided a corridor for the long-distance dispersal of the species. CONCLUSIONS: We found that C. taliensis showed fairly high genetic differentiation resulting from restricted gene flow and habitat fragmentation. This phylogeographical study gives us deep insights into population structure of the species and conservation strategies for germplasm sampling and developing in situ conservation of natural populations.     

What can population genetics tell us about dispersal and biogeographic history of coral-reef fishes?

Abstract Coral-reef fishes, like many other marine organisms, generally possess a benthic adult stage and pelagic larval stage. What can population genetics studies tell us about the demographic, evolutionary and biogeographic consequences of this life cycle? Ten studies of geographical patterns of intraspecific genetic differentiation in reef fishes have been published. These studies have included 2t > species/species complexes (14 in the family Pomacentridae, the remaining 12 in 9 different families) and have been about equally divided between the tropical Pacific and the tropical western Atlantic. A survey of these studies shows the following: (i) the existence of the pelagic larval stage appears to have led to high levels of gene flow even among populations separated by thousands of kilometres of open ocean; (ii) an apparent pattern of increased gene flow among populations connected by intermediate 'stepping stones’; (iii) very tentative evidence for a relationship between length of pelagic larval life and gene flow; (iv) no clear relationship between egg type (pelagic rs non-pelagic) and gene flow; and (v) suggestive evidence that damselfishes (family Pomacentridae) may have more restricted dispersal (less gene flow) than other reef fishes. The application of current and future molecular tools has the strong potential to clarify some of these relationships, particularly by using relatively neutral genetic markers. Additionally, discoveries of DNA markers having very high rates of mutation may allow tracking of demographically relevant levels of larval dispersal. Molecular tools are becoming especially valuable in uncovering the biogeographic and phylogenetic history of reef fishes. The one molecular study to date has suggested that at least some speciation events may have occurred during the climate changes and sea-level regressions associated with Pleistocene glacial episodes. Molecular tools need to be used to further explore the means by which high species diversity can be generated in the face of the apparently high gene flow observed in most coral-reef fishes.     

Phylogeography of five Polytrichum species within Europe

Using allozymes and microsatellites we have analysed the genetic structure among European populations for several Polytrichum species to infer relevant factors, such as historical events or gene flow, that have shaped their genetic structure. As we observed low levels of genetic differentiation among populations, and no decreasing levels of genetic variation with increasing latitude within most of the examined species, no genetic evidence was obtained for a step-wise recolonization of Europe from southern refugia after the latest glacial period for P. commune , P. uliginosum , P. formosum and P. piliferum . The near absence of population substructuring within these species does indicate that extensive spore dispersal is the most important factor determining the genetic structure among European Polytrichum populations. Gene flow levels have apparently been sufficient to prevent genetic differentiation among populations caused by genetic drift, and to wipe out any genetic structure caused by the postglacial recolonization process. On the other hand, increased genetic differentiation of alpine P. formosum populations suggests that mountain ranges might restrict gene flow significantly among Polytrichum populations. In contrast to most examined Polytrichum species, P. juniperinum showed high levels of genetic differentiation and a profound genetic structure. Assuming that gene flow is not more restricted in P. juniperinum , these findings suggest that this species has recolonized Europe after the latest glacial period from two different refugia, one possibly being the British Isles.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 2003, 78, 203–213.     

Direct and indirect estimates of gene flow among wild and managed populations of Polaskia chichipe, an endemic columnar cactus in Central Mexico

Microsatellite markers were used to obtain direct and indirect estimates of gene flow in populations of Polaskia chichipe under different management regimes, in order to understand the genetic consequences of gene flow in the evolutionary process of domestication. P. chichipe is a columnar cactus endemic to the Tehuacan Valley, Central Mexico, and has come under domestication for its edible fruit. Morphological, phenological, physiological, and reproductive differences, apparently attributable to artificial selection, exist between wild and managed populations, which grow sympatrically. However, strong gene flow may counteract the effects of this selection. In this study, we used paternity analysis to demonstrate that although most of the pollinations occur among individuals within the same population at distances < 40 m, pollen flow from other populations is considerable (27 +/- 5%). Heterogeneity in pollen clouds sampled by mother plants (FST = 0.12) indicated nonrandom mating, which is probably due to temporal heterogeneity in pollen movement. Spatial structure on local and regional scales is consistent with an isolation-by-distance model. The similarity of indirect, direct and demographic estimates of neighbourhood size (74-250 individuals) suggests that this genetic structure is representative of an equilibrium state. These results suggest that traditional management practices have conserved the genetic resources of this species in situ, but also that gene flow is counteracting the effect of domestication to some degree. We discuss our results in the general context of genetic exchange between cultivated and wild populations during the domestication process.     

Past and present patterns of connectivity among populations of four cryptic species of freshwater mussels Velesunio spp. (Hyriidae) in central Australia

We examined genetic structure and levels of connectivity among subpopulations within each of four cryptic species belonging to the freshwater mussel genus Velesunio. We used allozymes and a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I gene to examine genetic variation in populations from isolated waterholes, belonging to four major inland drainages in eastern Australia. Based on evidence from other invertebrates in the region we predicted that, in each species, we would find evidence of historical connectivity among populations from different drainages. This was clearly not the case, as for the two species that occurred in more than one drainage there was evidence of both current and past restriction to gene flow. Moreover, given the potential for extensive dispersal of these mussels through the river systems during flood times via their fish hosts, we predicted low levels of genetic variation among populations from waterholes in the same drainage. Contrary to our expectations, all four species showed some evidence of restricted gene flow among waterholes within drainages. This suggests that either (a) mussel larvae are not produced during flood times, when their fish hosts would be free to move between waterholes, or (b) mussel larvae are attached to their hosts at these times, but the fish movement is limited between waterholes.     

Genetic variation and spatial structure in sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) and implications for predicted global-scale environmental change

Current ecosystem model predictions concerning the effects of global temperature increase on forest responses do not account for factors influencing long‐term evolutionary dynamics of natural populations. Population structure and genetic variability may represent important factors in a species' ability to adapt to global‐scale environmental change without experiencing major alterations in current range limits. Genetic variation and structure in sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.) were examined across three regions, between two stands within regions, and among four to five open‐pollinated families within stands (total N = 547 genotypes) using 58 randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Differences within open‐pollinated families account for the largest portion of the total variation (29%), while differences among regions represent less than 2% of the total variation. Genetic diversity, as indicated by estimates of percent polymorphic loci, expected heterozygosity, fixation coefficients, and genetic distance, is greatest in the southern region, which consists of populations with the maximum potential risk due to climate change effects. The high level of genetic similarity (greater than 90%) among some genotypes suggests that gene flow is occurring among regions, stands, and families. High levels of genetic variation among families indicate that vegetational models designed to predict species' response to global‐scale environmental change may need to consider the degree and hierarchical structure of genetic variation when making large‐scale inferences.     

Strong genetic population structure in the boring giant clam, Tridacna crocea, across the Indo-Malay Archipelago: implications related to evolutionary processes and connectivity

Even though the Indo-Malay Archipelago hosts the world's greatest diversity of marine species, studies on the genetic population structure and gene flow of marine organisms within this area are rather rare. Consequently, not much is known about connectivity of marine populations in the Indo-Malay Archipelago, despite the fact that such information is important to understand evolutionary and ecological processes in the centre of marine biodiversity. This study aims to investigate the genetic population structure of the boring giant clam, Tridacna crocea . The analysis is based on a 456-bp fragment of the cytochrome oxidase I gene from 300 individuals collected from 15 localities across the Indo-Malay Archipelago. Tridacna crocea shows a very strong genetic population structure and isolation by distance, indicating restricted gene flow between almost all sample sites. The observed Φ_ST-value of 0.28 is very high compared to other studies on giant clams. According to the pronounced genetic differences, the sample sites can be divided into four groups from West to East: (i) Eastern Indian Ocean, (ii) Java Sea, (iii) South China Sea, Indonesian throughflow, as well as seas in the East of Sulawesi, and (iv) Western Pacific. This complex genetic population structure and pattern of connectivity, characterised by restricted gene flow between some sites and panmixing between others can be attributed to the geological history and prevailing current regimes in the Indo-Malay Archipelago.     

Gene flow and spatio-temporal genetic variation among sympatric populations of Tetranychus kanzawai (Acari: Tetranychidae) occurring on different host plants, as estimated by microsatellite gene diversity

We investigated spatio-temporal genetic variation in allele frequency and estimated gene flow among sympatric populations of Tetranychus kanzawai on different host plants by the use of microsatellite markers. In the analysis of spatial genetic variation, no isolation by distance was detected among the populations. Gene flow between populations on Hydrangea macrophylla and those on other host plants was relatively restricted, whereas the populations on Akebia quinata and Clerodendrum trichotomum were almost panmictic. Our study on temporal genetic variation showed (1) that population differentiation was slightly reduced during the period from April to May owing to frequent gene flow among populations; and (2) that population differentiation was greatly enhanced from May to October because of bottleneck effects. Genetic differentiation among T. kanzawai populations was caused by the effect of host plants rather than by the effect of geographic distance among populations, suggesting possibility of sympatric host race formation in this species.This revised version was published online in May 2005 with a corrected cover date.     

Genetic population structure of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus microcarpus suggests high gene flow in south-eastern Australia

Pisolithus are ectomycorrhizal fungi that associate with roots of numerous plant species in natural and plantation forests worldwide. Despite the fact that Pisolithus spp. are present in plantation forests in many countries, knowledge of the genetic population structure of Pisolithus spp. remains limited. In this study, we have tested the hypothesis that a propensity for long-distance spore dispersal in Pisolithus microcarpus, along with the widespread distribution of potential eucalypt and acacia plant hosts in south-eastern Australia facilitates gene flow that limits population differentiation. Five polymorphic simple sequence repeat markers were used to investigate the population structure of P. microcarpus. Isolates were grouped according to geographical origin and isolate genotypes were analysed among the geographical populations. Pairwise F _ST estimates indicated limited genetic differentiation among the geographical populations. Analysis of molecular variance revealed that most of the genetic variation present was within geographical populations, with only 1.3% of the genetic variation among P. microcarpus geographical populations. This was particularly pronounced for four geographical populations within a ca 7,000 km² area New South Wales, which were each separated by <100 km and appeared to be genetically homogeneous. The lack of population structure is suggested to be due to a high degree of gene flow, via basidiospores, between the New South Wales geographical populations.     

Geographic patterns in the reproductive ecology of Agave lechuguilla (Agavaceae) in the Chihuahuan desert. II. Genetic variation, differentiation, and inbreeding estimates

Plants with natural variation in their floral traits and reproductive ecology are ideal subjects for analyzing the effects of natural selection and other evolutionary forces on genetic structure of natural populations. Agave lechuguilla shows latitudinal changes in floral morphology, color, and nectar production along its distribution through north-central Mexico. Both the type and abundance of its pollinators also change with latitude. Using starch electrophoresis, we examined the levels and patterns of variation of 13 polymorphic allozyme loci in 11 populations of A. lechuguilla. The overall level of genetic variability was high (H(e) = 0.394), but the levels of genetic variation had no geographic pattern. However, the southern populations exhibited an excess of heterozygotes in relation to expectations for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, whereas the northern populations had an excess of homozygotes. Total differentiation among populations was low (θ = 0.083), although gene flow estimates (Nm) varied among groups of populations: southern populations had the lowest levels of genetic differentiation, suggesting high levels of gene flow; northern populations had greater levels of genetic differentiation (θ = 0.115), suggesting low gene flow among them. The patterns and inferences of the genetic structure of the population at the molecular level is consistent with variation in floral traits and pollinator visitation rates across the range of the species.