LIM-homeodomain transcription factor Awh is a key component activating all three fibroin genes,fibH, fibL and fhx,in the silk gland of the silkworm,Bombyx mori

In the silkworm Bombyx mori, three fibroin genes, fibroin-heavy-chain (fibH), fibroin-light-chain (fibL) and fibrohexamerin (fhx), are coexpressed only in the posterior silk gland (PSG) cells, while the sericin genes encoding silk glue proteins are expressed in the middle silk gland (MSG) cells. Silk gland factor-2 (SGF-2) is a PSG-specific activator complex of fibH, composed of a LIM-homeodomain protein, Awh, and its cofactors, Ldb and Lcaf. We investigated whether SGF-2 can activate other fibroin genes using transgenic silkworms. The genes for Ldb and Lcaf were expressed ubiquitously in various tissues, while the gene for Awh was expressed strictly specific in PSG of the wild type silkworms. Misexpression of Awh in transgenic silkworms induced ectopic expression of fibL and fhx as well as fibH in MSG. Coincidently with the induction of fibL and fhx by Awh, binding of SGF-2 to the promoter of fibL and fhx was detected in vitro, and SGF-2 binds directly to the fhx core promoter. Ectopic expression of the fibroin genes was observed at high levels in the middle part of MSG. Moreover, fibL and fhx were induced in the anterior silk gland (ASG) of the transgenic silkworms, but fibH was not. These results indicate that Awh is a key activator of all three fibroin genes, and the activity is probably regulated in conjunction with additional factors.     

Carbonic anhydrase generates a pH gradient in Bombyx mori silk glands

Silk is a protein of interest to both biological and industrial sciences. The silkworm, Bombyx mori, forms this protein into strong threads starting from soluble silk proteins using a number of biochemical and physical cues to allow the transition from liquid to fibrous silk. A pH gradient has been measured along the gland, but the methodology employed was not able to precisely determine the pH at specific regions of interest in the silk gland. Furthermore, the physiological mechanisms responsible for the generation of this pH gradient are unknown.In this study, concentric ion selective microelectrodes were used to determine the luminal pH of B. mori silk glands. A gradient from pH 8.2 to 7.2 was measured in the posterior silk gland, with a pH 7 throughout the middle silk gland, and a gradient from pH 6.8 to 6.2 in the beginning of the anterior silk gland where silk processing into fibers occurs. The small diameter of the most anterior region of the anterior silk gland prevented microelectrode access in this region. Using a histochemical method, the presence of active carbonic anhydrase was identified in the funnel and anterior silk gland of fifth instar larvae. The observed pH gradient collapsed upon addition of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor methazolamide, confirming an essential role for this enzyme in pH regulation in the B. mori silk gland. Plastic embedding of whole silk glands allowed clear visualization of the morphology, including the identification of four distinct epithelial cell types in the gland and allowed correlations between silk gland morphology and silk stages of assembly related to the pH gradient.B. mori silk glands have four different epithelial cell types, one of which produces carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is necessary for the mechanism that generates an intraluminal pH gradient, which likely regulates the assembly of silk proteins and then the formation of fibers from soluble silk proteins. These new insights into native silk formation may lead to a more efficient production of artificial or regenerated silkworm silk fibers.     

Biosynthetic pathway of the phytohormone auxin in insects and screening of its inhibitors

Insect galls are abnormal plant tissues induced by galling insects. The galls are used for food and habitation, and the phytohormone auxin, produced by the insects, may be involved in their formation. We found that the silkworm, a non-galling insect, also produces an active form of auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), by de novo synthesis from tryptophan (Trp). A detailed metabolic analysis of IAA using IAA synthetic enzymes from silkworms indicated an IAA biosynthetic pathway composed of a three-step conversion: Trp → indole-3-acetaldoxime → indole-3-acetaldehyde (IAAld) → IAA, of which the first step is limiting IAA production. This pathway was shown to also operate in gall-inducing sawfly. Screening of a chemical library identified two compounds that showed strong inhibitory activities on the conversion step IAAld → IAA. The inhibitors can be efficiently used to demonstrate the importance of insect-synthesized auxin in gall formation in the future.     

Wolbachia infection in Aedes aegypti mosquitoes alters blood meal excretion and delays oviposition without affecting trypsin activity

Blood feeding in Aedes aegypti is essential for reproduction, but also permits the mosquito to act as a vector for key human pathogens such as the Zika and dengue viruses. Wolbachia pipientis is an endosymbiotic bacterium that can manipulate the biology of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, making them less competent hosts for many pathogens. Yet while Wolbachia affects other aspects of host physiology, it is unclear whether it influences physiological processes associated with blood meal digestion. To that end, we examined the effects of wMel Wolbachia infection in Ae. aegypti, on survival post-blood feeding, blood meal excretion, rate of oviposition, expression levels of key genes involved in oogenesis, and activity levels of trypsin blood digestion enzymes. We observed that wMel infection altered the rate and duration of blood meal excretion, delayed the onset of oviposition and was associated with a greater number of eggs being laid later. wMel-infected Ae. aegypti also had lower levels of key yolk protein precursor genes necessary for oogenesis. However, all of these effects occurred without a change in trypsin activity. These results suggest that Wolbachia infection may disrupt normal metabolic processes associated with blood feeding and reproduction in Ae. aegypti.     

Structural features,evolutionary relationships,and transcriptional regulation of C-type lectin-domain proteins in Manduca sexta

C-type lectins (CTLs) are a large family of Ca²⁺-dependent carbohydrate-binding proteins recognizing various glycoconjugates and functioning primarily in immunity and cell adhesion. We have identified 34 CTLDP (for CTL-domain protein) genes in the Manduca sexta genome, which encode proteins with one to three CTL domains. CTL-S1 through S9 (S for simple) have one or three CTL domains; immulectin-1 through 19 have two CTL domains; CTL-X1 through X6 (X for complex) have one or two CTL domains along with other structural modules. Nine simple CTLs and seventeen immulectins have a signal peptide and are likely extracellular. Five complex CTLs have both an N-terminal signal peptide and a C-terminal transmembrane region, indicating that they are membrane anchored. Immulectins exist broadly in Lepidoptera and lineage-specific gene duplications have generated three clusters of fourteen genes in the M. sexta genome, thirteen of which have similar expression patterns. In contrast to the family expansion, CTL-S1∼S6, S8, and X1∼X6 have 1:1 orthologs in at least four lepidopteran/dipteran/coleopteran species, suggestive of conserved functions in a wide range of holometabolous insects. Structural modeling suggests the key residues for Ca²⁺-dependent or independent binding of certain carbohydrates by CTL domains. Promoter analysis identified putative κB motifs in eighteen of the CTL genes, which did not have a strong correlation with immune inducibility in the mRNA or protein levels. Together, the gene identification, sequence comparisons, structure modeling, phylogenetic analysis, and expression profiling establish a solid foundation for future studies of M. sexta CTL-domain proteins.     

An independent occurrence of the chimeric P450 enzyme CYP337B3 of Helicoverpa armigera confers cypermethrin resistance in Pakistan

The increasing resistance level of insect pest species is a major concern to agriculture worldwide. The cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, is one of the most important pest species due to being highly polyphagous, geographically widespread, and resistant towards many chemical classes of insecticides. We previously described the mechanism of fenvalerate resistance in Australian populations conferred by the chimeric cytochrome P450 monooxygenase CYP337B3, which arose by unequal crossing-over between CYP337B1 and CYP337B2. Here, we show that this mechanism is also present in the cypermethrin-resistant FSD strain from Pakistan. The Pakistani and the Australian CYP337B3 alleles differ by 18 synonymous and three nonsynonymous SNPs and additionally in the length and sequence of the intron. Nevertheless, the activity of both CYP337B3 proteins is comparable. We demonstrate that CYP337B3 is capable of metabolizing cypermethrin (trans- and especially cis-isomers) to the main metabolite 4'-hydroxycypermethrin, which exhibits no intrinsic toxicity towards susceptible larvae. In a bioassay, CYP337B3 confers a 7-fold resistance towards cypermethrin in FSD larvae compared to susceptible larvae from the Australian TWB strain lacking CYP337B3. Linkage analysis shows that presence of CYP337B3 accounts for most of the cypermethrin resistance in the FSD strain; up-regulation of other P450s in FSD plays no detectable role in resistance. The presence or absence of CYP337B3 can be easily detected by a simple PCR screen, providing a powerful tool to rapidly distinguish resistant from susceptible individuals in the field and to determine the geographical distribution of this resistance gene. Our results suggest that CYP337B3 evolved twice independently by unequal crossing-over between CYP337B2 and two different CYP337B1 alleles.     

Seasonal patterns of microcystin-producing and non-producing Planktothrix rubescens genotypes in a deep pre-alpine lake

The filamentous cyanobacterium Planktothrix rubescens produces secondary metabolites called microcystins (MC) that are potent toxins for most eukaryotes, including zooplankton grazers, cattle and humans. P. rubescens occurs in many deep and thermally stratified lakes throughout Europe. In Lake Zurich (Switzerland), it re-appeared in the 1970s concomitant with decreasing eutrophication. Since then, P. rubescens has become the dominant species in this major drinking water reservoir, where it forms massive metalimnetic blooms during late summer. These cyanobacteria harbor subpopulations of non-MC producers, but little is known about the environmental factors affecting the success of such genotypes. The non-MC-producing subpopulation of P. rubescens was studied using a quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assay on the MC synthetase (mcy) gene cluster that targets a deletion on the mcyH and mcyA genes, which inactivates MC biosynthesis. Two complementary qPCR assays were used to assess the total population abundance (based on the 16S rDNA gene) and the mcy gene copy number (based on a conserved region in the adenylation domain of the mcyB gene). The objective was to evaluate the seasonal patterns of the share of non-MC-producing filaments in the total P. rubescens population. The mcyHA mutants were present in low proportions (up to 14%) throughout the year. Their highest relative abundances occurred during the winter mixis, when total concentrations of P. rubescens were minimal. The MC deficient mutants seemed to better survive in sparse populations, possibly because of lower grazing pressure and a consequently reduced need for MC-mediated protection. Alternatively, the mutants might cope better with the sub-optimal, stressful pressure and light conditions during the winter mixis. Altogether, our results suggest that subtle trade-offs might seasonally determine the proportions of non-MC producers within P. rubescens populations.     

The silkworm glutathione S-transferase gene noppera-bo is required for ecdysteroid biosynthesis and larval development

Insect molting and metamorphosis are tightly controlled by ecdysteroids, which are important steroid hormones that are synthesized from dietary sterols in the prothoracic gland. One of the ecdysteroidogenic genes in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is noppera-bo (nobo), also known as GSTe14, which encodes a member of the epsilon class of glutathione S-transferases. In D. melanogaster, nobo plays a crucial role in utilizing cholesterol via regulating its transport and/or metabolism in the prothoracic gland. However, it is still not known whether the orthologs of nobo from other insects are also involved in ecdysteroid biosynthesis via cholesterol transport and/or metabolism in the prothoracic gland. Here we report genetic evidence showing that the silkworm Bombyx mori ortholog of nobo (nobo-Bm; GSTe7) is essential for silkworm development. nobo-Bm is predominantly expressed in the prothoracic gland. To assess the functional importance of nobo-Bm, we generated a B. mori genetic mutant of nobo-Bm using TALEN-mediated genome editing. We show that loss of nobo-Bm function causes larval arrest and a glossy cuticle phenotype, which are rescued by the application of 20-hydroxyecdysone. Moreover, the prothoracic gland cells isolated from the nobo-Bm mutant exhibit an abnormal accumulation of 7-dehydrocholesterol, a cholesterol metabolite. These results suggest that the nobo family of glutathione S-transferases is essential for development and for the regulation of sterol utilization in the prothoracic gland in not only the Diptera but also the Lepidoptera. On the other hand, loss of nobo function mutants of D. melanogaster and B. mori abnormally accumulates different sterols, implying that the sterol utilization in the PG is somewhat different between these two insect species.     

Sternal gland structures in males of bean flower thrips,Megalurothrips sjostedti,and Poinsettia thrips,Echinothrips americanus,in comparison with those of western flower thrips,Frankliniella occidentalis (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Sternal pores are important features for identification of male thrips, especially within the subfamily Thripinae. They vary in shape, size and distribution even between species of one genus. Their functional role is speculated to be that of sex- and/or aggregation pheromone production. Yet, sexual aggregations are not reported in Echinothrips americanus, known to have sternal pores, while we observed aggregations in Megalurothrips sjostedti, previously reported to lack them.We examined the sternal glands and pores of the thripine species E. americanus and M. sjostedti males, in comparison with those of Frankliniella occidentalis using light microscopy, as well as scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Pore plates of F. occidentalis were ellipsoid and medial on sternites III–VII, while in E. americanus they were distributed as multiple micro pore plates on sternites III–VIII. In M. sjostedti they appeared as an extremely small pore in front of the posterior margin of each of sternites IV–VII. Pore plate and pore plate area were distributed similarly on sternites III–VII in F. occidentalis. However, in E. americanus the total pore plate area increased significantly from sternites III to VIII. Ultrastructure of cells associated with sternal glands showed typical characteristics of gland cells that differ in size, shape and number. The function of sternal glands is further discussed on the basis of morphological comparisons with other thrips species.     

Mitochondria: A crossroads for lipid metabolism defect in neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation diseases

Neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) comprises a group of brain iron deposition syndromes that lead to mixed extrapyramidal features and progressive dementia. Exact pathologic mechanism of iron deposition in NBIA remains unknown. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that many neurodegenerative diseases are hallmarked by metabolic dysfunction that often involves altered lipid profile. Among the identified disease genes, four encode for proteins localized in mitochondria, which are directly or indirectly implicated in lipid metabolism: PANK2, CoASY, PLA2G6 and C19orf12. Mutations in PANK2 and CoASY, both implicated in CoA biosynthesis that acts as a fatty acyl carrier, lead, respectively, to PKAN and CoPAN forms of NBIA. Mutations in PLA2G6, which plays a key role in the biosynthesis and remodeling of membrane phospholipids including cardiolipin, lead to PLAN. Mutations in C19orf12 lead to MPAN, a syndrome similar to that caused by mutations in PANK2 and PLA2G6. Although the function of C19orf12 is largely unknown, experimental data suggest its implication in mitochondrial homeostasis and lipid metabolism. Altogether, the identified mutated proteins localized in mitochondria and associated with different NBIA forms support the concept that dysfunctions in mitochondria and lipid metabolism play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of NBIA.This article is part of a Directed Issue entitled: Energy Metabolism Disorders and Therapies.     

Know your ABCs: Characterization and gene expression dynamics of ABC transporters in the polyphagous herbivore Helicoverpa armigera

Polyphagous insect herbivores are adapted to many different secondary metabolites of their host plants. However, little is known about the role of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, a multigene family involved in detoxification processes. To study the larval response of the generalist Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera) and the putative role of ABC transporters, we performed developmental assays on artificial diet supplemented with secondary metabolites from host plants (atropine-scopolamine, nicotine and tomatine) and non-host plants (taxol) in combination with a replicated RNAseq experiment. A maximum likelihood phylogeny identified the subfamily affiliations of the ABC transporter sequences. Larval performance was equal on the atropine-scopolamine diet and the tomatine diet. For the latter we could identify a treatment-specific upregulation of five ABC transporters in the gut. No significant developmental difference was detected between larvae fed on nicotine or taxol. This was also mirrored in the upregulation of five ABC transporters when fed on either of the two diets. The highest number of differentially expressed genes was recorded in the gut samples in response to feeding on secondary metabolites. Our results are consistent with the expectation of a general detoxification response in a polyphagous herbivore. This is the first study to characterize the multigene family of ABC transporters and identify gene expression changes across different developmental stages and tissues, as well as the impact of secondary metabolites in the agricultural pest H. armigera.