Necrosis Is an Active and Controlled Form of Programmed Cell Death

In all studies on programmed cell death (PCD) and apoptosis as its most showy form, this process was considered to be a paradigmatic antithesis to necrotic cell death. On one hand, a concept on necrosis as a cellular cataclysm, an uncontrolled and passive phenomenon, had been provoked by an enormous bulk of experimental data on its inducibility by super-physiological exposures. On the other hand, much attention was attracted to a rapidly expanding (from nematodes) field of genetic studies on PCD. However, the findings accumulated which suggested a likeness rather than the opposition of the necrotic and apoptotic forms of elimination of unwanted cells. 1. Very diverse pathophysiological exposures (stimuli, stresses), such as heat, ionizing radiation, pathogens, cytokines cause both forms of cell death in the same cell population. 2. Antiapoptotic mechanisms (e.g., Bcl-2) can protect cells from both necrotic and apoptotic destruction. 3. Biochemical interventions (e.g., with inhibitors of poly-(ADP-riboso)-polymerase) into the signal and executive mechanisms of PCD can change the choice of the cell death form. 4. During both necrosis and epigenetic programs of apoptotic cell death that need no macromolecular synthesis (e.g., the CD95-dependent death), the nucleus plays a passive role. Therefore, necrosis, similarly to apoptosis, is suggested to be a form of the programmed cell death. However, for the whole body the physiological consequences of apoptosis and necrosis are quite different. In the case of apoptosis, all constituents of the nucleus and cytoplasm are isolated by an undamaged membrane and then by phagocytes together with the membrane-bound eat me markers (phosphatidylserine, etc.). In other words, the elimination of the cell which has realized its apoptotic program remains virtually unnoticed by the body. In the case of necrosis, the cytoplasmic content released into the intercellular space provokes an inflammatory response, i.e., an activation of resident phagocytes and attraction of leukocytes into the necrosis zone. It is suggested that under pathophysiological conditions, the necrotic cell destruction should amplify and catalyze pathological processes. The experimental data available now suggest that a disturbance in the body of optimal balance between the necrotic and apoptotic forms of PCD should be a crucial factor in the development of various pathophysiological processes associated with inflammation (diabetes, arthritis) or with aging (atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases).     

Pathological apoptosis in the developing brain

More than half of the initially-formed neurons are deleted in certain brain regions during normal development. This process, whereby cells are discretely removed without interfering with the further development of remaining cells, is called programmed cell death (PCD). The term apoptosis is used to describe certain morphological manifestations of PCD. Many of the effectors of this developmental cell death program are highly expressed in the developing brain, making it more susceptible to accidental activation of the death machinery, e.g. following hypoxia-ischemia or irradiation. Recent evidence suggests, however, that activation and regulation of cell death mechanisms under pathological conditions do not exactly mirror physiological, developmentally regulated PCD. It may be argued that the conditions after e.g. ischemia are not even compatible with the execution of PCD as we know it. Under pathological conditions cells are exposed to various stressors, including energy failure, oxidative stress and unbalanced ion fluxes. This results in parallel triggering and potential overshooting of several different cell death pathways, which then interact with one another and result in complex patterns of biochemical manifestations and cellular morphological features. These types of cell death are here called "pathological apoptosis," where classical hallmarks of PCD, like pyknosis, nuclear condensation and caspase-3 activation, are combined with non-PCD features of cell death. Here we review our current knowledge of the mechanisms involved, with special focus on the potential for therapeutic intervention tailored to the needs of the developing brain.     

Programmed cell death pathways in cancer: a review of apoptosis,autophagy and programmed necrosis

Programmed cell death (PCD), referring to apoptosis, autophagy and programmed necrosis, is proposed to be death of a cell in any pathological format, when mediated by an intracellular program. These three forms of PCD may jointly decide the fate of cells of malignant neoplasms; apoptosis and programmed necrosis invariably contribute to cell death, whereas autophagy can play either pro‐survival or pro‐death roles. Recent bulk of accumulating evidence has contributed to a wealth of knowledge facilitating better understanding of cancer initiation and progression with the three distinctive types of cell death. To be able to decipher PCD signalling pathways may aid development of new targeted anti‐cancer therapeutic strategies. Thus in this review, we present a brief outline of apoptosis, autophagy and programmed necrosis pathways and apoptosis‐related microRNA regulation, in cancer. Taken together, understanding PCD and the complex interplay between apoptosis, autophagy and programmed necrosis may ultimately allow scientists and clinicians to harness the three types of PCD for discovery of further novel drug targets, in the future cancer treatment.     

Programmed cell death in spinal cord injury pathogenesis and therapy

Spinal cord injury (SCI) always leads to functional deterioration due to a series of processes including cell death. In recent years, programmed cell death (PCD) is considered to be a critical process after SCI, and various forms of PCD were discovered in recent years, including apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, pyroptosis and paraptosis. Unlike necrosis, PCD is known as an active cell death mediated by a cascade of gene expression events, and it is crucial for elimination unnecessary and damaged cells, as well as a defence mechanism. Therefore, it would be meaningful to characterize the roles of PCD to not only enhance our understanding of the pathophysiological processes, but also improve functional recovery after SCI. This review will summarize and explore the most recent advances on how apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, pyroptosis and paraptosis are involved in SCI. This review can help us to understand the various functions of PCD in the pathological processes of SCI, and contribute to our novel understanding of SCI of unknown aetiology in the near future.     

植物细胞程序性死亡研究进展

植物细胞死亡分为坏死和程序性死亡。细胞程序性死亡是具有信号或一系列分子参与,并且由细胞内在的死亡程序介导的有序过程。它在植物生长发育和抵御外界胁迫中具有重要作用。简要介绍了植物PCD的特征,对植物PCD中的信号分子和类caspase的作用等进行了综述,并对植物PCD存在的问题进行分析和展望,为深入研究植物PCD提供参考。     

Anti-apoptosis and cell survival: A review

Type I programmed cell death (PCD) or apoptosis is critical for cellular self-destruction for a variety of processes such as development or the prevention of oncogenic transformation. Alternative forms, including type II (autophagy) and type III (necrotic) represent the other major types of PCD that also serve to trigger cell death. PCD must be tightly controlled since disregulated cell death is involved in the development of a large number of different pathologies. To counter the multitude of processes that are capable of triggering death, cells have devised a large number of cellular processes that serve to prevent inappropriate or premature PCD. These cell survival strategies involve a myriad of coordinated and systematic physiological and genetic changes that serve to ward off death. Here we will discuss the different strategies that are used to prevent cell death and focus on illustrating that although anti-apoptosis and cellular survival serve to counteract PCD, they are nevertheless mechanistically distinct from the processes that regulate cell death.     

Heat stress induces different forms of cell death in sea anemones and their endosymbiotic algae depending on temperature and duration

Bleaching of reef building corals and other symbiotic cnidarians due to the loss of their dinoflagellate algal symbionts (=zooxanthellae), and/or their photosynthetic pigments, is a common sign of environmental stress. Mass bleaching events are becoming an increasingly important cause of mortality and reef degradation on a global scale, linked by many to global climate change. However, the cellular mechanisms of stress-induced bleaching remain largely unresolved. In this study, the frequency of apoptosis-like and necrosis-like cell death was determined in the symbiotic sea anemone Aiptasia sp. using criteria that had previously been validated for this symbiosis as indicators of programmed cell death (PCD) and necrosis. Results indicate that PCD and necrosis occur simultaneously in both host tissues and zooxanthellae subject to environmentally relevant doses of heat stress. Frequency of PCD in the anemone endoderm increased within minutes of treatment. Peak rates of apoptosis-like cell death in the host were coincident with the timing of loss of zooxanthellae during bleaching. The proportion of apoptosis-like host cells subsequently declined while cell necrosis increased. In the zooxanthellae, both apoptosis-like and necrosis-like activity increased throughout the duration of the experiment (6 days), dependent on temperature dose. A stress-mediated PCD pathway is an important part of the thermal stress response in the sea anemone symbiosis and this study suggests that PCD may play different roles in different components of the symbiosis during bleaching.     

Programmed cell death of plant tracheary elements differentiating in vitro

Summary We used various microscopic and labeling techniques to examine events occurring during the programmed cell death (PCD) of plant tracheary elements (TEs) developing in vitro. TEs differentiating in vitro synthesize a secondary cell wall which is complex in composition and pattern at approximately 72 h after hormone manipulation. The timing of PCD events was established relative to this developmental marker. Cytoplasmic streaming continues throughout secondary wall synthesis, which takes 6 h to complete in a typical cell. Vital dye staining and ultrastructural analysis show that the vacuole and plasma membrane are intact during secondary cell wall synthesis, but the cytoplasm becomes less dense in appearance, most likely through the action of confined hydrolysis by small vacuoles which are seen throughout the cell at this time. The final, preeminent step of TE PCD is a rapid collapse of the vacuole occurring after completion of secondary cell wall synthesis. Vacuole collapse is an irreversible commitment to death which results in the immediate cessation of cytoplasmic streaming and leads to the complete degradation of cellular contents, which is probably accomplished by release of hydrolytic enzymes sequestered in the vacuole. This event represents a novel form of PCD. The degradation of nuclear DNA is detectable by TUNEL, an in situ labeling method, and appears to occur near or after vacuole collapse. Our observations indicate that the process of cellular degradation that produces the hollow TE cell corpse is an active and cell-autonomous process which is distinguishable morphologically and kinetically from necrosis. Although TE PCD does not resemble apoptosis morphologically, we describe the production of spherical protoplast fragments by cultured cells that resemble apoptotic bodies but which are not involved in TE PCD. We also present evidence that, unlike the hypersensitive response (HR), TE PCD does not involve an oxidative burst. While this evidence does not exclude a role for reactive oxygen intermediates in TE PCD, it does suggest TE PCD is mechanistically distinct from cell death during the HR.Abbreviations BA 6-benzylamino-purine - DAPI 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole diacetate - DCF 2,7-dichlorofluorescein diacetate - DPI diphenyleneiodonium - FDA fluorescein diacetate - HR hypersensitive response - NAA -naphthalene-acetic acid - PCD programmed cell death - ROI reactive oxygen intermediate - TE tracheary element - TUNEL TdT-mediated dUTP nick end labeling     

AIF-Mediated Programmed Necrosis: A Highly Orchestrated Way to Die

Historically, two main forms of cell death have been distinguished: apoptosis and necrosis. Apoptosis was initially considered as the only physiological and programmed form of cell death. This type of death is recurrently associated with caspases, a family of cysteine proteases activated in apoptotic conditions. However, it is now widely recognized that programmed cell death (PCD) can also occur in the complete absence of caspase activation. The existence of non-caspase PCD pathways was corroborated by the discovery of caspase-independent executioners, such as the mitochondrial protein Apoptosis-Inducing Factor (AIF). Necrosis has often been viewed as an accidental and uncontrolled cell death process. Nevertheless, increasing evidence shows that, like apoptosis, necrosis could be a highly regulated type of PCD. Indeed, apoptosis and necrosis present more similarities than it has been originally thought. Here, we summarize the different classifications of PCD and the current knowledge of a necrotic PCD pathway mediated by AIF: alkylating DNA-damage mediated death. We also outline the molecular mechanisms controlling this form of PCD and discuss their potential relevance in physiological and pathological settings. These emerging data on the molecular mechanisms regulating programmed necrosis may certainly have potent therapeutic consequences in treating both apoptotic-resistant tumors and degenerating adult neurons.     

Beyond apoptosis: nonapoptotic cell death in physiology and disease.

Apoptosis is a morphologically defined form of programmed cell death (PCD) that is mediated by the activation of members of the caspase family. Analysis of death-receptor signaling in lymphocytes has revealed that caspase-dependent signaling pathways are also linked to cell death by nonapoptotic mechanisms, indicating that apoptosis is not the only form of PCD. Under physiological and pathological conditions, cells demonstrate a high degree of flexibility in cell-death responses, as is reflected in the existence of a variety of mechanisms, including necrosis-like PCD, autophagy (or type II PCD), and accidental necrosis. In this review, we discuss recent data suggesting that canonical apoptotic pathways, including death-receptor signaling, control caspase-dependent and -independent cell-death pathways.     

Constitutive caspase-like machinery executes programmed cell death in plant cells

The morphological features of programmed cell death (PCD) and the molecular machinery involved in the death program in animal cells have been intensively studied. In plants, cell death has been widely observed in predictable patterns throughout differentiation processes and in defense responses. Several lines of evidence argue that plant PCD shares some characteristic features with animal PCD. However, the molecular components of the plant PCD machinery remain obscure. We have shown that plant cells undergo PCD by constitutively expressed molecular machinery upon induction with the fungal elicitor EIX or by staurosporine in the presence of cycloheximide. The permeable peptide caspase inhibitors, zVAD-fmk and zBocD-fmk, blocked PCD induced by EIX or staurosporine. Using labeled VAD-fmk, active caspase-like proteases were detected within intact cells and in cell extracts of the PCD-induced cells. These findings suggest that caspase-like proteases are responsible for the execution of PCD in plant cells.     

Mechanical insights into the regulation of programmed cell death by p53 via mitochondria

All organisms end with their death, and many parts of cells die through intrinsic suicide machineries in response to diverse stimuli. These intrinsic cell death pathways are often termed as programmed cell deaths (PCDs), and are critical for organism development, tissue homeostasis and various diseases. Recent evidence has revealed that most of PCDs involve a tumor suppressor p53 and components of the intra-mitochondria. Furthermore, the movement and positioning of p53 in cells affect the induction of each PCD pathway. Here we provide a comprehensive review on p53-related PCD mechanisms via the mitochondria, namely classical apoptosis, non-classical apoptosis, autophagic cell death, ferroptosis, necroptosis. In addition, we discuss the roles of p53 in each PCD pathway by focusing its altered intracellular localization in response to diverse cellular stresses.     

Resilience of death: intrinsic disorder in proteins involved in the programmed cell death

It is recognized now that intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs), which do not have unique 3D structures as a whole or in noticeable parts, constitute a significant fraction of any given proteome. IDPs are characterized by an astonishing structural and functional diversity that defines their ability to be universal regulators of various cellular pathways. Programmed cell death (PCD) is one of the most intricate cellular processes where the cell uses specialized cellular machinery and intracellular programs to kill itself. This cell-suicide mechanism enables metazoans to control cell numbers and to eliminate cells that threaten the animal''s survival. PCD includes several specific modules, such as apoptosis, autophagy, and programmed necrosis (necroptosis). These modules are not only tightly regulated but also intimately interconnected and are jointly controlled via a complex set of protein–protein interactions. To understand the role of the intrinsic disorder in controlling and regulating the PCD, several large sets of PCD-related proteins across 28 species were analyzed using a wide array of modern bioinformatics tools. This study indicates that the intrinsic disorder phenomenon has to be taken into consideration to generate a complete picture of the interconnected processes, pathways, and modules that determine the essence of the PCD. We demonstrate that proteins involved in regulation and execution of PCD possess substantial amount of intrinsic disorder. We annotate functional roles of disorder across and within apoptosis, autophagy, and necroptosis processes. Disordered regions are shown to be implemented in a number of crucial functions, such as protein–protein interactions, interactions with other partners including nucleic acids and other ligands, are enriched in post-translational modification sites, and are characterized by specific evolutionary patterns. We mapped the disorder into an integrated network of PCD pathways and into the interactomes of selected proteins that are involved in the p53-mediated apoptotic signaling pathway.     

Regulation of autophagy by polyphenolic compounds as a potential therapeutic strategy for cancer

Autophagy, a lysosomal degradation pathway for cellular constituents and organelles, is an adaptive and essential process required for cellular homeostasis. Although autophagy functions as a survival mechanism in response to cellular stressors such as nutrient or growth factor deprivation, it can also lead to a non-apoptotic form of programmed cell death (PCD) called autophagy-induced cell death or autophagy-associated cell death (type II PCD). Current evidence suggests that cell death through autophagy can be induced as an alternative to apoptosis (type I PCD), with therapeutic purpose in cancer cells that are resistant to apoptosis. Thus, modulating autophagy is of great interest in cancer research and therapy. Natural polyphenolic compounds that are present in our diet, such as rottlerin, genistein, quercetin, curcumin, and resveratrol, can trigger type II PCD via various mechanisms through the canonical (Beclin-1 dependent) and non-canonical (Beclin-1 independent) routes of autophagy. The capacity of these compounds to provide a means of cancer cell death that enhances the effects of standard therapies should be taken into consideration for designing novel therapeutic strategies. This review focuses on the autophagy- and cell death-inducing effects of these polyphenolic compounds in cancer.     

Multiple cell death programs: Charon's lifts to Hades

Cells use different pathways for active self-destruction as reflected by different morphology: while in apoptosis (or "type I") nuclear fragmentation associated with cytoplasmic condensation but preservation of organelles is predominant, autophagic degradation of cytoplasmic structures preceding nuclear collapse is a characteristic of a second type of programmed cell death (PCD). The diverse morphologies can be attributed--at least to some extent--to distinct biochemical and molecular events (e.g. caspase-dependent and -independent death programs; DAP-kinase activity, Ras-expression). However, apoptosis and autophagic PCD are not mutually exclusive phenomena. Rather, diverse PCD programs emerged during evolution, the conservation of which apparently allows cells a flexible response to environmental changes, either physiological or pathological.     

Timing is everything: regulatory overlap in plant cell death

Plant development and defence are intimately connected to programmed cell death (PCD). PCD can occur after environmental cues such as pathogen infection, mechanical damage or abiotic stress. However, PCD also constitutes an essential feature of various aspects of growth and development. Despite the differences in stimuli, the subsequent steps leading to programmed cellular death show considerable commonality, reflecting the essential and overlapping roles of individual regulatory components in these processes. These components can function as positive or negative regulators and can have contrasting functions depending on the form of cell death.     

细胞程序死亡与bcl－2基因

细胞程序死亡(PCD),是有别于细胞坏死的另一种重要的衰老、死亡形式,它在胚胎发育、肿瘤发生、免疫系统的克隆选择中起重要作用.bcl-2是调控PCD的基因,但不能抑制所有类型的PCD.最近发现,bcl-X基因编码大小不同的两种蛋白,分别具有刺激和抑制PCD的功能.bcl-2通过抑制PCD可导致细胞癌变,因而bcl-2被看作第三类癌基因.     

Apoptotic-like programmed cell death in plants

Programmed cell death (PCD) is now accepted as a fundamental cellular process in plants. It is involved in defence, development and response to stress, and our understanding of these processes would be greatly improved through a greater knowledge of the regulation of plant PCD. However, there may be several types of PCD that operate in plants, and PCD research findings can be confusing if they are not assigned to a specific type of PCD. The various cell-death mechanisms need therefore to be carefully described and defined. This review describes one of these plant cell death processes, namely the apoptotic-like PCD (AL-PCD). We begin by examining the hallmark 'apoptotic-like' features (protoplast condensation, DNA degradation) of the cell's destruction that are characteristic of AL-PCD, and include examples of AL-PCD during the plant life cycle. The review explores the possible cellular 'executioners' (caspase-like molecules; mitochondria; de novo protein synthesis) that are responsible for the hallmark features of the cellular destruction. Finally, senescence is used as a case study to show that a rigorous definition of cell-death processes in plant cells can help to resolve arguments that occur in the scientific literature regarding the timing and control of plant cell death.     

Nitric oxide: promoter or suppressor of programmed cell death?

Nitric oxide (NO) is a short-lived gaseous free radical that predominantly functions as a messenger and effector molecule. It affects a variety of physiological processes, including programmed cell death (PCD) through cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-dependent and-independent pathways. In this field, dominant discoveries are the diverse apoptosis networks in mammalian cells, which involve signals primarily via death receptors (extrinsic pathway) or the mitochondria (intrinsic pathway) that recruit caspases as effector molecules. In plants, PCD shares some similarities with animal cells, but NO is involved in PCD induction via interacting with pathways of phytohormones. NO has both promoting and suppressing effects on cell death, depending on a variety of factors, such as cell type, cellular redox status, and the flux and dose of local NO. In this article, we focus on how NO regulates the apoptotic signal cascade through protein S-nitrosylation and review the recent progress on mechanisms of PCD in both mammalian and plant cells.     

Programmed cell death

This paper reviews data on programmed cell death (apoptosis) in animals and plants. Necrosis is a pathological scenario of cell death, which entails an inflammatory response in animal tissues. Apoptosis results in the disintegration of animal/plant cells into membrane vesicles enclosing the intracellular content, which are thereupon engulfed by adjacent or specialized cells (phagocytes) in animals. Plants lack such specialized cells, and plant cell walls prevent phagocytosis. The paper considers the main molecular mechanisms of apoptosis in animals and the pathways of activation of caspases, evolutionarily conserved cysteine proteases. A self-contained section concerns itself with the process of programmed cell death (PCD) in microorganisms including: 1) cell death in the myxomycete Dictyostelium discoideum and the parasitic flagellate Trypanosoma cruzi; 2) PCD in genetically manipulated yeast expressing the proapoptotic Bax and Bak proteins; 3) the death of a part of a prokaryotic cell population upon the depletion of nutrient resources or under stress; 4) the elimination of cells after a loss of a plasmid encoding a stable cytotoxic agent in combination with an unstable antidote; and 5) PCD in phage-infected bacterial cells.