Egg parasitoids of Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Den. & Schiff.) (Lep., Thaumetopoeidae) and their impact in SW Turkey

Abstract: Egg parasitoids (Hym., Chalcidoidea) and egg parasitism were studied in 132 egg batches of the pine processionary moth collected from stands of Pinus nigra Arnold and P. brutia Ten. in SW Turkey, at four places in heights of 800–1010 m a.s.l. in October 1998, beyond the caterpillars’ hatch. The egg batches deposited on P. nigra were high‐significantly smaller than those found on P. brutia. In this mountainous regions, Baryscapus servadeii (Dom.) and Ooencyrtus pityocampae (Mercet) were the most abundant egg parasitoids of Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Den. & Schiff.). Considering the different sampling places, Trichogramma sp. was found maximally in 3.1% of the parasitized eggs. Additionally, the hyper‐parasitoid Baryscapusransversalis Graham (mean infestation 1.8%) and Pediobius bruchicida (Rond.) (0.1%), both occurring in both sexes, and Anastatus bifasciatus (Fonsc.) (0.1%), only females, were established. The primary parasitoid O. pityocampae dominantly parasitized the eggs placed near the top of the batches, and B. servadeii was found mainly in eggs near the base. The rate of parasitism of the egg batches was very variable. The impact of egg parasitoids and predators varied from 24 to 35.9% depending on the sampling place. The hatching rate of the caterpillars was reduced to 50.7–65.6%. Under laboratory conditions, the emergence dynamics of the parasitoids showed a peak of B. tranversalis in December of the year, in which the host eggs were laid. Baryscapus servadeii emerged mainly in March–May of the following year, when the second part of O. pityocampae appeared. A large part of both parasitoids emerged before sampling of the batches. In O. pityocampae 1.65% and in B. servadeii 2.23% males developed under laboratory conditions. A rate of 15.7% of O. pityocampae and 7.9% of B. servadeii died in the eggs. The polyembryonic Trichogramma sp. (see also Tsankov et al., 1996a ) attacked 1.8% of the eggs. Up to 20 (mean 12) dead pupae were found in one egg. Minor parts of eggs were undeveloped (2.9%) and 0.6% totally empty.     

繁育寄主对三种赤眼蜂个体大小及抱卵量的影响

【目的】繁育寄主及成蜂日龄均会影响赤眼蜂体内的抱卵量,为了解繁育寄主及育出赤眼蜂个体大小与赤眼蜂抱卵量的关系,我们在室内研究了米蛾 Corcyra cephalonica（Stainton）卵和亚洲玉米螟 Ostrinia furnacalis （Güenée）卵作为繁育寄主对3种赤眼蜂雌蜂大小、抱卵量的影响。【方法】在光周期14L:10D、温度25±1℃的室内条件下,以米蛾卵、亚洲玉米螟卵作为繁育寄主,解剖不同日龄（羽化后12-72 h）松毛虫赤眼蜂 Trichogramma dendrolimi Matsumura、玉米螟赤眼蜂Trichogramma ostriniae Pang et Chen以及稻螟赤眼蜂Trichogramma japonicum Ashmead,观察雌蜂抱卵量,测量成蜂的大小,分析雌蜂抱卵量与其日龄、个体大小以及繁育寄主的关系【结果】在羽化后48 h以内,3种蜂的抱卵量随雌蜂日龄的增长而增加。羽化后72 h,除米蛾卵繁育的玉米螟赤眼蜂及玉米螟卵繁育的松毛虫赤眼蜂的抱卵量比羽化后48 h时略高外,其他组合均出现下降。以亚洲玉米螟卵为繁育寄主时的玉米螟赤眼蜂的抱卵量显著高于对应日龄的以米蛾卵为繁育寄主时的抱卵量,而松毛虫赤眼蜂（除羽化后12和24 h外）和稻螟赤眼蜂则相反;以米蛾卵为繁育寄主时,相同日龄的赤眼蜂中,松毛虫赤眼蜂抱卵量最高,稻螟赤眼蜂的抱卵量最低;以亚洲玉米螟卵为繁育寄主时,玉米螟赤眼蜂抱卵量最高,稻螟赤眼蜂抱卵量最低。雌蜂抱卵量与雌蜂个体大小呈线性正相关,相关程度随雌蜂日龄增加而更加明显。【结论】后足胫节长度可以作为评价松毛虫赤眼蜂、玉米螟赤眼蜂和稻螟赤眼蜂质量的指标。赤眼蜂抱卵量受繁育寄主、赤眼蜂蜂种及雌蜂日龄的显著影响,寄主的适合性也会影响育出赤眼蜂的大小,筛选合适的繁育寄主有助于提高赤眼蜂的质量。     

Egg mortality in the cedar processionary moth,Thaumetopoea bonjeani (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), in an outbreak area of Algeria

The cedar processionary moth, Thaumetopoea bonjeani (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae), is one of the most serious pests of Cedrus atlantica in north-western Africa (Algeria and Morocco). We report on T. bonjeani egg mortality and the diversity and abundance of parasitoids associated with its eggs in the area of Djurdjura Mountain (Tala-Guilef, Algeria). For this goal, 223 egg batches were collected from C. atlantica over two cohorts (2012 and 2013). The average number of eggs per egg batch increased from 143 in 2012 to 171 in 2013, while the egg mortality decreased from 47.4% and 23.9%, respectively, possibly because of a dilution effect. The most important factors of egg mortality were parasitoids and predators, with hymenopteran egg parasitoids killing from 12.1% to 34.9%, and predators from 5.2% to 7.4% of the eggs. The pattern of egg parasitism was driven largely by Ooencyrtus pityocampae, accounting for about 94% of the total parasitoids, followed by Baryscapus servadeii and Trichogramma embryophagum. An hyperparasitoid Chartocerus sp. was collected for the first time from eggs of Thaumetopoea species. As the two major egg parasitoids are shared with the pine processionary moth Thaumetopoea pityocampa in the same area, it is likely that parasitoid abundance may depend on the occurrence of both hosts.     

Potential for controlling codling moth Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in Argentina using the sterile insect technique and egg parasitoids

Codling moth is the main pest affecting apples and pears worldwide. Most pest control strategies used against this insect have relied on the use of broad‐spectrum insecticides which have led to non‐desirable effects like pesticide resistance, residues in the environment, human health concerns and the reduction of access to international markets. Therefore, alternative pest control strategies that would result in sustainable fruit production systems while taking care of the environment are strongly promoted. The use of the sterile insect technique has proven to be a valuable pest control tactic within area‐wide integrated pest management strategies, and its synergistic effect for Lepidoptera pests when combined with other biological control tactics such as parasitoids has been documented. The purposes of this research were to evaluate the response of an Argentinean codling moth strain to a sub‐sterilizing radiation dose of 100 Gy and to assess the acceptability and suitability of sterile codling moth eggs by the egg parasitoids, Trichogramma cacoeciae (Marchal) and Trichogramma nerudai (Pintureau and Gerding). Irradiated female moths survived better than irradiated male moths and non‐irradiated male and female moths. Also, the fecundity of irradiated female moths was reduced by more than 30% as compared to non‐irradiated ones whereas their fertility was close to zero. The F₁ generation was male biased with a lower fertility (inherited sterility) than the parental generation. Trichogramma cacoeciae and T. nerudai parasitized both fertile and sterile eggs. However, there was a significant reduction in acceptability for sterile eggs. Trichogramma nerudai parasitized more eggs than T. cacoeciae, but egg acceptability for this species was proportionally lower than for T. cacoeciae especially on eggs oviposited by irradiated females. Development to adult of both parasitoids species was not substantially affected by the origin of the eggs and the wasps had acceptable levels of adult emergence, survival and fecundity. These results provided useful information on the potential for controlling the codling moth using egg parasitoids and the sterile insect technique in Argentina.     

Parasitization of potato tuber moth eggs (Lep., Gelechiidae) from irradiated adults by Trichogramma (Hym., Trichogrammatidae) and control of moth population with combined releases of sterile insect and egg parasitoid

Abstract:  Eggs of the potato tuber moth (PTM) Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) obtained from 150 or 300 Gy-irradiated moths, either inbred or out-crossed to untreated counterparts, were offered as host material to three generalist Trichogramma species; Trichogramma cacoeciae , Trichogramma evanescens , and Trichogramma principium , to determine the ability of these egg parasitoids to develop in F₁ sterile eggs. All eggs laid by the different parental crosses at 150 or 300 Gy, were acceptable and suitable for Trichogramma development. However, in no choice and paired comparison tests, eggs from 300 Gy-irradiated parents were significantly less preferred compared with eggs laid by non-irradiated moths. No intra-specific differences for PTM sterile eggs were recorded among the tested Trichogramma species. The mean number of wasps emerging from each egg types was not affected by an interaction between parental crosses and applied doses. Overall, this study demonstrates that release of irradiated and non-irradiated moths at a 5 : 1 over-flooding ratio and Trichogramma over potatoes in small plexiglass boxes, is complementary and more effective in reducing PTM F₁-emerged progeny than either technique used alone. The results provide baseline data for developing an integrated control approach by using inherited sterility technique in conjunction with Trichogramma for PTM population suppression.     

Maize landraces recruit egg and larval parasitoids in response to egg deposition by a herbivore

Natural enemies respond to herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs), but an often overlooked aspect is that there may be genotypic variation in these 'indirect' plant defence traits within plant species. We found that egg deposition by stemborer moths (Chilo partellus) on maize landrace varieties caused emission of HIPVs that attract parasitic wasps. Notably, however, the oviposition-induced release of parasitoid attractants was completely absent in commercial hybrid maize varieties. In the landraces, not only were egg parasitoids (Trichogramma bournieri) attracted but also larval parasitoids (Cotesia sesamiae). This implies a sophisticated defence strategy whereby parasitoids are recruited in anticipation of egg hatching. The effect was systemic and caused by an elicitor, which could be extracted from egg materials associated with attachment to leaves. Our findings suggest that indirect plant defence traits may have become lost during crop breeding and could be valuable in new resistance breeding for sustainable agriculture.     

松毛虫卵期几种寄生蜂的共寄生现象及其对寄生率的影响

松毛虫赤眼蜂Ｔｒｉｃｈｏｇｒａｍｍａｄｅｎｄｒｏｌｉｍ　Ｍａｔｓｕｍｕｒａ,白跗平腹小蜂ＰｓｅｕｄａｎａｓｔａｔｕｓａｌｂｉｔａｒｓｉｓＡｓｈｍｅａｄ,松毛虫宽缘金小蜂Ｐａｃｈｙｎｅｕｒｏｎ　ｓｏｌｉｔａｒｉｕｍ（Ｈａｒｔｉｇ）,松毛虫黑卵蜂Ｔｅｌｅｎｏ－ｍｕｓ　ｄｅｎｄｒｏｌｉｍｕｓｉ　Ｃｈｕ和大蛾卵跳小蜂Ｏｏｅｎｃｙｒｔｕｓｋｕｗａｎａｅ（Ｈｏｗａｒｄ）是松毛虫卵期几种主要寄生蜂。通过对上述几种寄生蜂寄生习性的研究表明：赤眼蜂和平腹小蜂不但能寄生新鲜害虫卵,还可以寄生对方已寄生并已发育１—３天的寄生卵,但羽化率均不高;松毛虫宽缘金小峰不寄生新鲜害虫卵,专门寄生赤眼蜂寄生后已发育１—７天的寄生卵,其中又以赤眼蜂发育３—５天的卵寄生率和羽化率为最高。除赤眼蜂和平腹小蜂可以混合使用外,其它蜂种混用都不同程度地存在相互排挤的现象。如果先让平腹小蜂寄生尔后再让赤眼蜂寄生或先让赤眼蜂寄生,尔后再让跳小蜂或黑卵蜂寄生,能够提高卵块寄生率和充分发挥各自天敌的作用。     

Choosy egg parasitoids: Specificity of oviposition-induced pine volatiles exploited by an egg parasitoid of pine sawflies

Generalist parasitoids are well‐known to be able to cope with the high genotypic and phenotypic plasticity of plant volatiles by learning odours during their host encounters. In contrast, specialised parasitoids often respond innately to host‐specific cues. Previous studies have shown that females of the specialised egg parasitoid Chrysonotomyia ruforum Krausse (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) are attracted to volatiles from Pinus sylvestris L. induced by the egg deposition of its host Diprion pini L. (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae), when they have previously experienced pine twigs with host eggs. In this study we investigated by olfactometer bioassays how specifically C. ruforum responded to oviposition‐induced plant volatiles. Furthermore, we studied whether parasitoids show an innate response to oviposition‐induced pine volatiles. Naïve parasitoids were not attracted to oviposition‐induced pine volatiles. The attractiveness of volatiles from pines carrying eggs was shown to be specific for the pine and herbivore species, respectively (species specificity). We also tested whether not only oviposition, but also larval feeding, induces attractive volatiles (developmental stage specificity). The feeding of D. pini larvae did not induce the emission of P. sylvestris volatiles attractive to the egg parasitoid. Our results show that a specialist egg parasitoid does not innately show a positive response to oviposition‐induced plant volatiles, but needs to learn them. Furthermore, the results show that C. ruforum as a specialist does not learn a wide range of volatiles as some generalists do, but instead learns only a very specific oviposition‐induced plant volatile pattern, i.e., a pattern induced by the most preferred host species laying eggs on the most preferred food plant.     

Reduction of ethylene emission from Scots pine elicited by insect egg secretion

Pinus sylvestris L. is known to activate indirect defence in response to attack by an herbivorous sawfly. Egg deposition by the sawfly Diprion pini L. induces pine to release, three days after egg laying, locally and systemically terpenoid volatiles that attract parasitoids to kill the eggs. The elicitor of the pine's response is located in the sawfly's oviduct secretion enveloping the eggs after deposition. Application of this secretion on twigs with artificially conducted ovipositional woundings mimics the effects of egg deposition. Furthermore, jasmonic acid (JA) induces a volatile pattern similar, but not identical, to the one induced by egg deposition. To gain deeper insight into the transduction of plant signals induced by herbivore egg deposition, it was investigated whether ethylene emission from pine is affected by sawfly egg deposition. Systemically induced ethylene emission from differently treated pine twigs was monitored for a period of 3 d after treatment. Ethylene emissions from untreated control twigs were compared with those from twigs treated as follows: (i) sawfly egg secretion [=oviduct secretion (OVI)] was transferred on artificially wounded pine needles (attractive volatiles), (ii) needles were artificially wounded (non-attractive volatiles), and (iii) the twig was supplied with JA (attractive volatiles). Ethylene emission from systemically OVI-induced twigs was significantly lower than from untreated controls, whereas artificial wounding had no detectable effect. JA-treated twigs released much more ethylene and showed higher variability of ethylene emission than artificially wounded twigs and OVI-treated ones. Ethylene emissions from pine after the various treatments studied here are discussed with respect to known effects of insect feeding on ethylene release from plants.     

东北地区四种本地赤眼蜂对草地贪夜蛾寄生能力及适应性研究

草地贪夜蛾Spodoptera frugiperda(Smith)是新入侵我国的重大危险性入侵害虫,赤眼蜂是我国生物防治的优势卵寄生蜂,可用于防治多种农林作物上的鳞翅目害虫。为检测东北地区本地赤眼蜂对草地贪夜蛾卵的生防潜能,筛选防治草地贪夜蛾的有效蜂种,本研究比较研究了松毛虫赤眼蜂、玉米螟赤眼蜂、黏虫赤眼蜂和稻螟赤眼蜂对草地贪夜蛾卵的寄生能力和发育适合度。结果表明,4种赤眼蜂均能寄生草地贪夜蛾卵,并完成发育,但其寄生能力和发育适合度存在显著差异。松毛虫赤眼蜂、玉米螟赤眼蜂和黏虫赤眼蜂对草地贪夜蛾卵块寄生率均高于80%,但仅松毛虫赤眼蜂对草地贪夜蛾卵表现出较高的卵粒寄生量。松毛虫赤眼蜂、玉米螟赤眼蜂和黏虫赤眼蜂子代羽化率和雌性比无显著差异,但松毛虫赤眼蜂比其它3种赤眼蜂的发育历期更短,而稻螟赤眼蜂对草地贪夜蛾卵的寄生能力和适合度均最差。研究结果将为应用本地赤眼蜂生物防治潜在入侵东北地区的草地贪夜蛾提供技术支撑。     

Acidic precipitation increases egg survival in Neodiprion sertifer

The effects of simulated acidic precipitation on the egg viability of the European pine sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer Geoffroy (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae) were studied by spraying egg clusters with a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acid (1:1, pH 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, distilled water, natural precipitation) for a month in April–May. Egg viability analyses showed that the proportion of hatched first instar larvae increased with increasing acidity. The better survival of sawfly eggs in pine needles in more acidic conditions may be partly due to changes in needle physiology affecting egg mortality. However, when the eggs were reared without needles in Petri-dishes, the proportion of successfully hatched larvae likewise increased with increasing acidity indicating direct acid-induced changes in the eggs themselves. Acidic precipitation as a stress factor of the host plant apparently changes population dynamics of pine sawflies and may be an important factor in triggering outbreaks.     

Fecundity and egg viability in relation to female body size in Neodiprion sertifer (Hymenoptera: Diprionidae)

Relationships between female size and fecundity, egg viability and embryonal development were studied in Neoriprion sertifer. Sawfly females, reared from the 1st instar larvae on Scots pine needles heavily affected by industrial pollutants or on relatively unpolluted needles, were induced to lay eggs parthenogenetically in the field in Finland. Females reared on polluted needles were smaller and oviposited an average of 68.8 eggs, and those reared on unpolluted needles 79.4 eggs per female. However, the higher egg viability in the former group masked the effect of reduced female size. This compensation was primarily related to the size of the females, larger individuals producing relatively fewer viable eggs in both groups.     

In vitro rearing of Ooencyrtus nezarae (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), an egg parasitoid of Riptortus pedestris (Hemiptera: Alydidae)

Ooencyrtus nezarae Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) is a polyphagous egg parasitoid of various true bugs, including Riptortus pedestris (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Alydidae), a major pest of soybean and fruit trees in northeastern Asia. This study was conducted to develop artificial host eggs containing insect haemolymph for mass rearing of O. nezarae. The haemolymph of Chinese oak silkworm (Antheraea pernyi Guérin-Méneville) pupae was found to be most suitable for artificial eggs for the complete development of O. nezarae. Among 764 parasitoid eggs laid in artificial eggs, 49.2% successfully developed to adult parasitoids. The developmental time in artificial eggs was delayed by 3–5 days relative to that observed in natural host eggs; however there was no significant difference in the length of hind tibia between adults that emerged from artificial and natural host eggs. Moreover, new generations that emerged from artificial eggs reproduced on all egg types offered (either natural or artificial eggs). We propose that the artificial eggs developed herein can therefore be an effective means for mass rearing O. nezarae.     

Effect of population bottlenecks on the egg morphology of introduced birds in New Zealand

Hatching failure is inversely correlated with population bottleneck size among exotic birds introduced to New Zealand, but the mechanism for this is unclear. We assess whether the bottlenecks these species experienced during their introduction have affected hatching failure through deleterious changes in egg morphology. We measured egg size and shape of 13 species that passed through bottlenecks of 11–800 individuals during their establishment in the 19th century. Eggs were also measured in the source populations ('pre-bottleneck') of each species to compare pre- and post-bottleneck egg morphology directly. Significant changes in egg volume were found in six of 13 species, with most laying smaller eggs in New Zealand. Egg shape changed in four of 13 species but there was no directional bias; two species developed more elongated eggs and two species broader eggs. There was no relationship between bottleneck size and change in egg volume, but species passing through severe bottlenecks had greater variability in egg volume and were more likely to have eggs that deviated in shape from their source populations. There was no relationship between changes in either egg volume or shape and rates of hatching failure. Further work is needed to assess whether changes in egg morphology have negative consequences on offspring fitness and whether the observed changes are the result of differing environmental conditions in the introduced range.     

松毛虫赤眼蜂对被害与未被害马尾松的趋性选择

分别利用培养皿和“Y”形嗅觉仪的测定方法,研究了松毛虫赤眼蜂Trichogramma dendrolimiMatsumura对马尾松毛虫Dendrolimus punctatusWalker危害的马尾松针(Pinus massoniana)与未被害马尾松针的趋性选择反应。发现未被害松针和被害松针对松毛虫赤眼蜂均具显著的引诱作用,但是在被害与未被害松针两者之间,松毛虫赤眼蜂明显选择被害松针;对于不同被害程度而言,松毛虫赤眼蜂倾向于选择被害程度严重的松针,而与松针是否被马尾松毛虫连续危害的关系不明显。即松毛虫赤眼蜂可以通过马尾松毛虫被害后的寄主植物(马尾松)所散发的气味以对寄主栖息地定向,跟踪、寻找马尾松毛虫。     

Effects of the Host Species and the Number of Parasitoids per Host on the Size of Some Trichogramma Species (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

The size of some Trichogramma spp. adults and especially the ovipositor length depends on the species, but is also related to the host species and to the number of parasitoids per host. The length is greater in T. evanescens than in T. pretiosum itself greater than in T. exiguum, but the width is similar in the three species. For T. evanescens, the size obtained in Mamestra brassicae host when three or four insects emerged is similar to that obtained in Ephestia kuehniella host when singly parasitized. The size of the ovipositor is important because it may influence the possibility of in vitro egg laying in artificial host eggs. A shorter or a narrower ovipositor could cause difficulties in egg-laying into artificial host eggs composed of a membrane of unsuitable thickness.     

Trichogramma parasitoids alter the metabolic physiology of Manduca eggs

Egg parasitoids face unique developmental constraints. First, they have exceptionally limited resources to support themselves and their siblings through three life stages. Second, they develop within the physiological system of another species, which they modify to their own ends. We examined how these constraints affect the metabolic physiology of egg parasitism, and whether parasitoids retool their host eggshell to account for their different metabolic demands. Higher-conductance eggshells allow more oxygen to reach the developing parasitoids, but also allow more water to leave the egg. We used Manduca sexta (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) eggs and Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) parasitoids from southeastern AZ, USA. Compared with unparasitized Manduca eggs, eggs parasitized by Trichogramma had lower peak metabolic rates and approximately 50 per cent lower metabolic efficiency. However, developing Trichogramma were far more efficient than typical transfer efficiencies between tropic levels (approx. 10%). Even within a few hours of parasitization, eggs containing more Trichogramma had lower per-parasitoid metabolic rates, suggesting that parasitoid larvae have mechanisms for rapidly adjusting their metabolic rates based on number of siblings. Parasitoids also appear to control the conductance of their host eggshell: their different metabolic demands were mirrored by shifts in rates of water loss.     

Long-term egg retention and parasitization in Trichogramma principum (Hym., Trichogrammatidae)

Laboratory experiments with Trichogramma principium Sug. et Sor. females that were offered Sitotroga cerealella Oliv. eggs demonstrated that less than half of the ovipositing females started oviposition during the first 2 days of the experiment, whereas the rest of the ovipositing females showed a delay in parasitization ranging from 2 to 10 days after contact with the host. Almost 10% of the wasps refused to parasitize the grain moth eggs over 12 days. The delay in parasitization may be as long as 6–8 days without any significant decrease in the number of mature ovarial eggs, in the number of eggs laid during the first 48 h of oviposition, and in the total lifetime fecundity. This egg retention is responsible for the fact that in spite of a relatively short mean duration of the oviposition period in each individual female (approximately 4 days), host parasitization by a group of simultaneously emerged wasps was almost uniformly distributed over 8–10 days. When induced, the parasitization state (i.e. the tendency to parasitize sequentially offered portions of host eggs) was stable both in the presence of a host and under host deprivation extended up to 8 days. These data provide further evidence for our hypotheses that the stability of the parasitization state in Trichogramma is based on endocrine mechanisms.     

Characteristics of egg and larval production in captive bluespotted gobies

Spawning of the Hawaiian coral-reef goby Asterropteryx semipunctata was diurnal, occurring at various times throughout the day. Mean length of eggs deposited in nests was 0·76 mm (range 0·67–0·84); mean egg width was 0·47 mm (range 0·41–0·52). Clutch size varied from 296 to 1552 eggs (mean=886±309), and was independent of standard length, total body weight, and body condition. Mean relative clutch size was 1·59 eggs mg^-1 total body weight (range 0·84–2·43). Clutches hatched 4–5 nights after being deposited in a nest. Mean notochord length of newly-hatched larvae was 1·88 mm (range 1·60–2·04). The minimum period of time that elapsed between egg deposition and subsequent growth of a new batch of oocytes to spawning size was 5–6 days, providing a reasonable estimate of minimum spawning interval. Compared with other gobiids, tropical species tend to have shorter incubation periods, smaller eggs and smaller larvae at hatching.     

Latitudinal variation in the phenological responses of eastern tent caterpillars and their egg parasitoids

1. Eastern tent caterpillars (Malacosoma americanum) are broadly distributed within North America, with populations spanning a wide range of environmental conditions. Their egg masses are consistently attacked by a variety of wasps in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. We performed a reciprocal transplant‐type experiment to assess the performance of three populations spanning 15° of latitude when subjected to temperature regimes resembling southern or northern conditions. 2. Exposure to warm temperatures and short overwintering periods (southern conditions) resulted in the increased survival of both caterpillars and parasitoids from all populations. By contrast, the ability of caterpillars to withstand starvation was maximised when exposed to conditions similar to their native region. 3. Caterpillar and wasp phenology differed among populations even when exposed to the same temperature regime. Individuals exposed to novel conditions hatched 2–6 weeks later than those experiencing native conditions. Under typical conditions, the relative phenology of wasps and their hosts exhibited a latitudinal gradient consistent with growing season length, with southern, central, and northern wasps, emerging 50, 45, and 36 days, respectively, after their hosts. 3. We identified four genera of primary parasitoids, which emerged within a narrow 2‐week span, and one hyperparasitoid, which emerged in distinct pulses over an approximately 5‐week span, possibly indicating the presence of a second generation. 4. Caterpillars and wasps exhibited distinct phenological responses according to population of origin, indicating that not only pre‐hatching winter and spring conditions, but also historical factors, which may include local adaptation, maternal effects, and oviposition time, influence their phenological responses.