Male dispersal patterns in white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus: Part 2: patterns and causes of secondary dispersal

Male dispersal from the birth group is common in the majority of social mammals, and in many species, males also engage in secondary or breeding dispersal following natal emigration. However, the patterns and causes of secondary dispersal are poorly understood due to the difficulty in following emigrants. Here, we detail the patterns and causation of male secondary dispersal in several groups of white-faced capuchins observed between 1985 and 2000 in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Subsequent to natal emigration, which occurs between 2 and 8 years of age (median 4.5 years), male white-faced capuchins embark on a life of continual movement. Although males of all age classes engage in voluntary secondary dispersal, the ways by which males enter groups varies according to their age class. Adult males (≥10 years old) are more likely to enter groups aggressively, and they display longer tenure than either subadult males (7-10 years of age) or juvenile males (1-7 years of age). Given our finding that adult males face the highest risks in terms of aggressive interactions with conspecifics, we examined several explanations as to why they continue to disperse throughout their lives. Our data best support the intragroup mating competition hypothesis for secondary dispersal, whereby males move frequently between groups as a means of increasing their reproductive opportunities. Males may also engage in frequent secondary dispersal to avoid mating with their maturing daughters, although this hypothesis was not strongly supported by the current data. Males of all age classes displayed very high levels of parallel dispersal, which probably serves to offset the high costs of dispersal (predation, starvation and/or aggression from conspecifics) and it may also serve as a means of retaining kinship among group males.     

Unraveling the dispersal patterns and the social drivers of natal emigration of a cooperative breeding mammal,the golden lion tamarin

The study of the social drivers of animal dispersal is key to understanding the evolution of social systems. Among the social drivers of natal emigration, the conspecific attraction, aggressive eviction, and reduced social integration hypotheses predict that sexually mature individuals who receive more aggressive behavior and are engaged in less affiliative interactions are more likely to disperse. Few reports have explored these proximate factors affecting emigration in cooperatively breeding species, particularly of Neotropical primates. In this study, we investigated the dispersal patterns and tested the social drivers of natal emigration in the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia) — an endangered species inhabiting Atlantic rainforests fragments in Brazil. We used behavioral and demographic data collected during 7 years from 68 groups of tamarins inhabiting 20 forest fragments. Our analyses from the 160 dispersing individuals showed that dispersal success is higher for males and for those engaged in parallel dispersal, but that males and females use different strategies to enhance their dispersal success, males immigrate into established groups while females form new groups. We did not find high levels of agonistic behavior among group members before natal emigration. Instead we found that conspecific attraction drives natal emigration in both sexes, while additionally the low level of affiliative interactions within the natal group triggers male emigration. We discuss natal emigration in the broader perspective of the cooperative breeding system and the implications of these findings for the conservation of the species.     

Dispersal patterns in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra): Integrating multiyear demographic and molecular data

Dispersal is a fundamental process in the functioning of animal societies as it regulates the degree to which closely related individuals are spatially concentrated. A species’ dispersal pattern can be complex as it emerges from individuals’ decisions shaped by the cost–benefit tradeoffs associated with either remaining in the natal group or dispersing. Given the potential complexity, combining long-term demographic information with molecular data can provide important insights into dispersal patterns of a species. Based on a 15-year study that integrates multiyear demographic data on six groups with longitudinal and cross-sectional genetic sampling of 20 groups (N = 169 individuals, N = 21 polymorphic microsatellite loci), we describe the various dispersal strategies of male and female black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) inhabiting Palenque National Park, Mexico. Genetically confirmed dispersal events (N = 21 of 59 males; N = 6 of 65 females) together with spatial autocorrelation analyses revealed that the dispersal pattern of black howlers is bisexual with strong sex-biases in both dispersal rate (males disperse more often than females) and dispersal distance (females disperse farther than males). Observational and genetic data confirm that both males and females can successfully immigrate into established groups, as well as form new groups with other dispersing individuals. Additionally, both males and females may disperse singly, as well as in pairs, and both may also disperse secondarily. Overall, our findings suggest multiple dispersal trajectories for black howler males and females, and longer multiyear studies are needed to unravel which demographic, ecological and social factors underlie individuals’ decisions about whether to disperse and which dispersal options to take.     

Two girls for every boy: The effects of group size and composition on the reproductive success of male and female white-faced capuchins

Many factors have been hypothesized to affect the size and adult sex ratios of primate groups and these, in turn, have been argued to influence birth rates. Using park-wide census data collected on a population of capuchins over a 25-year period, we examined whether group size and adult sex ratio affect the per capita reproductive success of male and female white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. We found that the reproductive success of females (measured as the observed minus the expected ratio of immatures to adult females in the group) decreased with increasing group size, whereas that of males was independent of group size. The proportion of adult males residing in groups had significant, yet contrasting effects on males and females. Male reproductive success was negatively associated with the proportion of males residing in groups whereas female reproductive success increased with the proportion of males. The latter finding supports the intersexual conflict hypothesis, which suggests that a conflict of interest occurs between males and females over adult sex ratios. The effects of group size and composition on the reproductive success of capuchins, a male-dispersed omnivorous species, are similar to those reported for howlers, a bisexually-dispersed folivorous species. One common factor between these taxa is that groups with low ratios of males to females are at greater risk of takeovers and resultant infanticide. Our results suggest that regardless of dietary preference and dispersal pattern, the threat of infanticide can constrain primate group size and composition.     

Why Be Vigilant? The Case of the Alpha Animal

We compared patterns of vigilance behavior in a male- and a female-dominant species—white-faced capuchins and ring-tailed lemurs—and used the results to test four hypotheses to explain vigilance behavior in primates. Adult male white-faced capuchins spent significantly more time vigilant than females did, and much male vigilance appeared to be directed toward males from other social groups. This finding supports the protection of paternity hypothesis. No sex difference existed in vigilance behavior among the ring-tailed lemurs, and subjects of both sexes exhibited more vigilance toward predators/potential predators than toward extragroup conspecifics, which supports the predator detection hypothesis. A trade-off argument, suggesting that females tolerate males in a group in return for greater male vigilance, does not apply to ring-tailed lemurs in our study. In both the male-dominant capuchins and the female-dominant ring-tailed lemurs, the alpha subject in the majority of the study groups was significantly more vigilant than other group members were. In white-faced capuchins, the alpha male mates more often than subordinate males do; therefore, the greater degree of vigilance exhibited by the alpha male may correspond to the protection of his reproductive investment. In ring-tailed lemurs, there can be more than one matriline in a group. Thus, the greater amount of vigilance behavior exhibited by the alpha female may be related to protection of her matriline, which could ultimately lead to greater inclusive fitness. Alpha subjects in our study groups exhibited certain behaviors more frequently or exclusively. Accordingly, there may be a constellation of behaviors characteristic of alpha animals.     

Reverse sex-biased philopatry in a cooperative bird: genetic consequences and a social cause

The genetic structure of a group or population of organisms can profoundly influence the potential for inbreeding and, through this, can affect both dispersal strategies and mating systems. We used estimates of genetic relatedness as well as likelihood-based methods to reconstruct social group composition and examine sex biases in dispersal in a Costa Rican population of white-throated magpie-jays ( Calocitta formosa , Swainson 1827), one of the few birds suggested to have female-biased natal philopatry. We found that females within groups were more closely related than males, which is consistent with observational data indicating that males disperse upon maturity, whereas females tend to remain in their natal territories and act as helpers. In addition, males were generally unrelated to one another within groups, suggesting that males do not disperse with or towards relatives. Finally, within social groups, female helpers were less related to male than female breeders, suggesting greater male turnover within groups. This last result indicates that within the natal group, female offspring have more opportunities than males to mate with nonrelatives, which might help to explain the unusual pattern of female-biased philopatry and male-biased dispersal in this system. We suggest that the novel approach adopted here is likely to be particularly useful for short-term studies or those conducted on rare or difficult-to-observe species, as it allows one to establish general patterns of philopatry and genetic structure without the need for long-term monitoring of identifiable individuals.     

Hominoid dispersal patterns and human evolution

Recent advances in DNA and isotope analyses have allowed tentative reconstructions of dispersal strategies of Plio-Pleistocene hominins.(1,2) Comparing their findings to dispersal patterns of some extant apes and humans suggested groups of related males and unrelated females in Neandertals indicating patrilocality(2) and Pan-like male philopatry in australopiths.(1) Here we review the demographic, ethnographic, and genetic evidence of dispersal patterns in extant apes and humans and compare the results to the suggestions for Plio-Pleistocene hominins. We find that alternative dispersal patterns, for example among gorillas or gibbons, could explain the findings of related or natal males in a confined geographic area. Based on sexual size dimorphism, we speculate that gorillas might currently be the best model for reconstructing dispersal in robust australopiths. Given that the sexual size dimorphism in other australopiths is still hotly debated, the question of which hominoid model best matches their dispersal pattern must remain unanswered. Neandertal dispersal patterns have been compared to patrilocality of modern humans. However, the latter is related to the advent of food production. Consequently, hunter-gatherers exhibiting primarily multilocality appear to be the better comparison for Neandertals. Overall, human-like patrilocality and Pan-like male philopatry appear to be poor models for the reconstruction of dispersal patterns in Plio-Pleistocene hominins.     

Population genetic structure and direct observations reveal sex‐reversed patterns of dispersal in a cooperative bird

Sex‐biased dispersal is pervasive and has diverse evolutionary implications, but the fundamental drivers of dispersal sex biases remain unresolved. This is due in part to limited diversity within taxonomic groups in the direction of dispersal sex biases, which leaves hypothesis testing critically dependent upon identifying rare reversals of taxonomic norms. Here, we use a combination of observational and genetic data to demonstrate a rare reversal of the avian sex bias in dispersal in the cooperatively breeding white‐browed sparrow weaver (Plocepasser mahali). Direct observations revealed that (i) natal philopatry was rare, with both sexes typically dispersing locally to breed, and (ii), unusually for birds, males bred at significantly greater distances from their natal group than females. Population genetic analyses confirmed these patterns, as (i) corrected Assignment index (AIc), F_ST tests and isolation‐by‐distance metrics were all indicative of longer dispersal distances among males than females, and (ii) spatial autocorrelation analysis indicated stronger within‐group genetic structure among females than males. Examining the spatial scale of extra‐group mating highlighted that the resulting ‘sperm dispersal’ could have acted in concert with individual dispersal to generate these genetic patterns, but gamete dispersal alone cannot account entirely for the sex differences in genetic structure observed. That leading hypotheses for the evolution of dispersal sex biases cannot readily account for these sex‐reversed patterns of dispersal in white‐browed sparrow weavers highlights the continued need for attention to alternative explanations for this enigmatic phenomenon. We highlight the potential importance of sex differences in the distances over which dispersal opportunities can be detected.     

No evidence for female kin association,indications for extragroup paternity,and sex‐biased dispersal patterns in wild western gorillas

Characterizing animal dispersal patterns and the rational behind individuals’ transfer choices is a long‐standing question of interest in evolutionary biology. In wild western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), a one‐male polygynous species, previous genetic findings suggested that, when dispersing, females might favor groups with female kin to promote cooperation, resulting in higher‐than‐expected within‐group female relatedness. The extent of male dispersal remains unclear with studies showing conflicting results. To investigate male and female dispersal patterns and extragroup paternity, we analyzed long‐term field observations, including female spatial proximity data, together with genetic data (10 autosomal microsatellites) on individuals from a unique set of four habituated western gorilla groups, and four additional extragroup males (49 individuals in total). The majority of offspring (25 of 27) were sired by the group male. For two offspring, evidence for extragroup paternity was found. Contrarily to previous findings, adult females were not significantly more related within groups than across groups. Consistently, adult female relatedness within groups did not correlate with their spatial proximity inferred from behavioral data. Adult females were similarly related to adult males from their group than from other groups. Using R _ST statistics, we found significant genetic structure and a pattern of isolation by distance, indicating limited dispersal in this species. Comparing relatedness among females and among males revealed that males disperse farer than females, as expected in a polygamous species. Our study on habituated western gorillas shed light on the dispersal dynamics and reproductive behavior of this polygynous species and challenge some of the previous results based on unhabituated groups.     

Dispersal among male ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) on St. Catherines Island

Male dispersal patterns were analyzed across a nine-year period in a population of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) on St. Catherines Island (SCI), USA, to evaluate two ultimate explanations for male dispersal: inbreeding avoidance and intrasexual mating competition. As part of this analysis, we also compared patterns of dispersal at this site with data from wild populations. Overall, we found that patterns of male intertroop movement on SCI are similar to the wild with respect to the frequency and seasonality of male transfer. In Madagascar, males move between groups every 3.1-3.5 years [Sussman, International Journal of Primatol 13:395-413, 1992; Koyama et al., Primates 43:291-314, 2002] as compared with every 3.2 years on SCI. The majority of transfers on SCI occurred during the birth season, as occurs at one site in Madagascar, Berenty [Budnitz & Dainis, Lemur biology. New York: Plenum Press, p 219-235, 1975; Jones, Folia Primatologica 40:145-160, 1983]. One difference is that males perform natal transfers 1-2 years earlier on SCI than in the wild, which may be related to food provisioning on SCI. Males never transferred back into their natal troops, which is remarkable given the small number of groups on SCI. Although this pattern of movement can indicate inbreeding avoidance by males, the fact that male troop tenure was in many cases long enough to overlap with the sexual maturation of potential daughters did not support the inbreeding avoidance hypothesis for male secondary dispersal. Instead, the intrasexual competition hypothesis was strongly supported, because males were significantly more likely to transfer into groups having fewer adult males and a more favorable sex ratio than their pretransfer groups. Males therefore appear to be bypassing groups in which they would experience a greater degree of intrasexual mating competition during the breeding season.     

Sex-bias and timing of natal dispersal in cooperatively breeding Puff-throated Bulbuls Alophoixus pallidus

While natal dispersal can have a significant impact on population dynamics, it is typically difficult to quantify. We investigated timing of natal dispersal of the cooperatively breeding Puff-throated Bulbul Alophoixus pallidus in a tropical evergreen forest by modelling the probability of staying in or dispersing from their natal territory whilst taking into account the effects of sex, group size, and the presence of helper(s). Birds did not disperse until the beginning of and during the breeding season following the hatching year. Dispersal was strongly female-biased both in frequency and distance: most females (95%) dispersed away from their natal territories, and of those relocated, traversed 2–7 territories. In contrast, 50% of males remained in the natal territory as helpers in their second year, while relocated dispersing males crossed 1–2 territories. Natal dispersal was not influenced by either group size or the presence of helpers. Males that fledged earlier in the breeding season exhibited higher rates of philopatry than the males that fledged later, but no correlation between fledging date and philopatry was observed in females. The probability of staying in the natal territory during the second year was 0.58 ± 0.14 SE and 0.05 ± 0.04 for males and females, respectively. These findings may add to our understanding of how natal dispersal can reflect social patterns and kin structure in cooperative breeding species from a little-studied tropical forest region.     

Social factors influencing natal dispersal in male white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)

White-faced capuchin males disperse from their natal group at around 4.5 years of age, but there is much variation in dispersal timing: our youngest confirmed disperser was 19 months and the oldest 11 years old. In this study, we investigate possible factors influencing dispersal decisions in this species. Between 1983 and 2010, 64 males were born into three study groups in Santa Rosa National Park, Area de Conservación Guanacaste, and Costa Rica. As of August 2010, 21 died or were presumed dead (<14 months), 13 remained natal residents, and 30 were presumed dispersers. We used backward logistic regression to identify proximate factors that predict the occurrence of male natal dispersal. The occurrence of a takeover (significant positive association) and group size (nonsignificant negative association) were included in the model. Male age, number of maternal brothers, and number of adult males were not significant predictors of natal dispersal. The resultant model correctly classified 97% of dispersed and 89% of resident natal males, for an overall success rate of 95%. The occurrence of a group takeover was the strongest predictor of male dispersal, with natal males being 18.7 times more likely to disperse in the context of a group takeover than during peaceful times. A linear regression model showed that the tenure length of a male's probable father influences the age of natal dispersal, explaining 15% of the observed variation in age. However, when our oldest disperser was removed (an outlier) this effect disappeared. Collectively, these results indicate that group instability, as evidenced by the occurrence of a takeover, shorter tenure length of a natal male's father, and smaller group size, triggers natal dispersal in this species while the converse leads to a delay. These data add to our growing evidence of the enormous impact that takeovers have on the behavioral ecology of this species.     

Sex biases in dispersal and philopatry: insights from a meta-analysis based on capture–mark–recapture studies of damselflies

Sex-biased dispersal is well known for birds and mammals, typically by females and males, respectively. Little is known about general patterns of sex-biased dispersal in other animal taxa. We reviewed return rates for a model group of invertebrates (damselflies) and explored putative costs and benefits of dispersal by males and females. We used published capture–mark–recapture data and examined whether a sex bias existed in likelihood of recapture at least once, at both emergence and/or breeding sites. We assessed whether this metric of likelihood of recapture was indicative of dispersal or philopatry, and whether any emerging pattern(s) were consistent across damselfly families. Using a meta-analysis, we found a higher likelihood of recapture at least once for males than for females at both natal sites and breeding sites, which seemed attributable to higher female-biased dispersal, although female-biased mortality cannot be discounted particularly for some species. Sex biases in dispersal among damselflies may be understood based on sex differences in maturation rate and foraging behaviour, both of which should affect the costs and benefits of dispersing. This hypothesis may be useful for explaining patterns of dispersal in other animal taxa.     

Carrying and hand-use patterns in Panamanian white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)

The aim of this project was to examine the potential influence of postural regulation on capuchin hand-use patterns by focusing on tasks that involved the carrying of objects. Two months were spent on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, collecting data on ten white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucicus) (four adult males/six adult females). Over 215 contact hours were spent with the monkeys, and a total of 213 carries were recorded. No hand preference bias at the population level was found for the carry task; and no detectable hand-use patterns for carry were correlated with the weight of the object carried (except a right-hand bias for carrying medium-sized objects), the plane of the monkey's movement, its locomotor pattern, or its height above the ground. Therefore, the results of this study do not support the hypothesis that the need for postural regulation while carrying an object influences hand-use patterns in free-ranging capuchins. Our results are especially important because they are contrary to the results of the only other free-ranging capuchin laterality study conducted to date (Panger, 1998).     

Alternative strategies in the acquisition of home ranges by male pine martens in a high-density population

Two strategies of home range acquisition by male subadult pine martens (Martes martes) were described from a high-density population inhabiting Bia?owie?a National Park. Four mother?Coffspring pairs were identified by genetic parentage assignments. Four subadult males showed two different strategies of home range acquisition: dispersal and sedentary. The dispersing males used an area 4?C10 times larger than in sedentary subadult males. A sedentary subadult male used his natal area with his mother, and in the following mating season, this male left this area and established a home range that overlapped greatly with another unrelated female near the natal range. A similar high overlap between another subadult male and an unrelated adult female persisted for 3?years. After the death of this female, the male extended his range to overlap slightly with two to four other females. The sedentary strategy adopted by some subadult males may explain the great variation in spacing patterns of solitary mammals.     

Patterns of dispersal in Sumatran siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus): preliminary mtDNA evidence suggests more frequent male than female dispersal to adjacent groups

Gibbons of both sexes have been observed emigrating from their natal groups, but the consequences of dispersal in gibbons are poorly understood, and it is unclear whether these are the same for both sexes. I sequenced a 350-bp fragment of mitochondrial DNA from 18 adults in seven siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus) groups at the Way Canguk Research Station in southern Sumatra to assess patterns of matrilineal relatedness among and within siamang groups, and to assess their fit with different patterns of sex-specific dispersal. A total of 11 haplotypes were identified in the seven study groups; 50% of adult males in five contiguous groups shared a haplotype with a member of an immediately adjacent group, whereas only 16.7% of females shared a haplotype with a neighbor. The apparent difference persisted if only same-sex individuals were considered (37.5% of males vs. 0% of females). Four of the seven study groups contained two adult males and a single adult female. In three multimale groups, the three adults all had different haplotypes, suggesting that neither male was the retained adult offspring of the female, whereas in the fourth group, the haplotype of one male was identical with that of the adult female. The high diversity of haplotypes and the absence of clustering among female haplotypes in the study neighborhood suggest that female dispersal to territories adjacent to the natal group may be relatively rare. The presence of some clustering of male haplotypes suggests that shorter dispersal distances may be more common in males.     

Male dispersal in a provisioned multilevel group of Rhinopithecus roxellana in Shennongjia Nature Reserve, China

Most Old World monkeys show male-biased dispersal. We present the first systematic data on male dispersal in a provisioned multilevel group of Rhinopithecus roxellana, based on 4.5 years of field observations in Shennongjia National Nature Reserve, China. We evaluated both ultimate (inbreeding avoidance and male mating competition) and proximate (food availability and predation risk) factors influencing male dispersal. The focal group contained 34-53 individuals, in 3-4 one-male units (OMUs) and 1 all-male unit (AMU). We observed 37 dispersal events involving 10 of 11 adults, 7 of 8 subadults, and 7 of 15 juveniles. Most interunit transfers within the focal group occurred around the months of mating season. Adult males competed for the leader positions of OMUs mainly through aggressive takeovers, and young males transferred from the OMUs to the AMU at the median age of 41 months, forced out by leader males. No young males older than 4 years remained in natal or non-natal OMUs. The male mating competition hypothesis was supported. The young males emigrated voluntarily from the focal group at the average age of 58.6 months, and no young emigrating male was observed to return, suggesting inbreeding avoidance also played a role in the dispersal of young males. Most emigration/immigration events were parallel dispersal and occurred during intergroup encounters, suggesting increased predation risk during the dispersal period. Males were more likely to emigrate/immigrate during the months when preferred foods were most available. We compared the dispersal patterns in R. roxellana with those in gelada baboons and hamadryas baboons, both living in multilevel societies. Similar to R. roxellana, young male geladas disperse at puberty, but they may return and breed in their natal groups. Males in hamadryas also disperse, but much less commonly than in R. roxellana. Provisioning may have influenced results, and confirming studies on unprovisioned groups would be valuable.     

Natal dispersal patterns are not associated with inbreeding avoidance in the Seychelles warbler

In this study, we test whether patterns of territory inheritance, social mate choice and female-biased natal dispersal act as inbreeding avoidance mechanisms in the cooperatively breeding Seychelles warbler. Our results show that Seychelles warblers do not reduce the likelihood of inbreeding by avoiding related individuals as mates. The occurrence of natural and experimentally induced territory inheritance did not depend on whether the remaining breeder was a parent of the potential inheritor or an unrelated breeder. Furthermore, dispersing individuals were no less related to their eventual mates than expected given the pool of candidates they could mate with. The female bias in natal dispersal distance observed in the Seychelles warbler does not facilitate inbreeding avoidance because, contrary to our prediction, there was no sex difference in the clustering of related opposite sex breeders around the natal territories of dispersers. As a result, the chance of females mating with relatives was not reduced by their greater dispersal distance compared with that of males.     

Explaining variation in affiliative relationships among male white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus)

Relationships among coresident male white-faced capuchins are highly variable, ranging from affiliative to aggressive. In this paper I examine the affiliative relationships of all adult and subadult males residing in four social groups in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Relationships among males in two study groups were neutral and tolerant, while in the remaining two groups males were highly affiliative. Male-male dyadic affiliative interactions were examined to determine which variables (group size, sex ratio, age relationship, relationship duration, and rank distance) influence the quality of male relationships within the study groups. Group size explained much of the variation, with males in small groups being more affiliative. However, the duration and history of the relationship among coresident males appears to be the most important variable in understanding male-male relationships within social groups.     

The Influence of Kinship on Familiar Natal Migrant Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta)

In most primate species, females remain in the natal group with kin while males disperse away from kin around the time of puberty. Philopatric females bias their social behavior toward familiar maternal and paternal kin in several species, but little is known about kin bias in the dispersing sex. Male dispersal is likely to be costly because males encounter an increased risk of predation and death, which might be reduced by dispersing together with kin and/or familiar males (individuals that were born and grew up in same natal group) or into a group containing kin and/or familiar males. Here we studied the influence of kinship on familiar natal migrant rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico, by combining demographic, behavioral, and genetic data. Our data suggest that kinship influences spatial proximity between recent natal immigrants and males familiar to them. Immigrants were significantly nearer to more closely related familiar males than to more distantly related individuals. Within a familiar subgroup, natal migrants were significantly closer to maternal kin, followed by paternal kin, then non-kin, and finally to males related via both the maternal and paternal line. Spatial proximity between natal immigrants and familiar males did not decrease over time in the new group, suggesting that there is no decline in associations between these individuals within the first months of immigration. Overall, our results might indicate that kinship is important for the dispersing sex, at least during natal dispersal when kin are still available.