Autonomous DNA replication in human cells is affected by the size and the source of the DNA.

We previously developed short-term and long-term assays for autonomous replication of DNA in human cells. This study addresses the requirements for replication in these assays. Sixty-two random human genomic fragments ranging in size from 1 to 21 kb were cloned in a prokaryotic vector and tested for their replication ability in the short-term assay. We found a positive correlation between replication strength and fragment length, indicating that large size is favored for efficient autonomous replication in human cells. All large fragments replicated efficiently, suggesting that signals which can direct the initiation of DNA replication in human cells are either very abundant or have a low degree of sequence specificity. Similar results were obtained in the long-term assay. We also used the same assays to test in human cells a random series of fragments derived from Escherichia coli chromosomal DNA. The bacterial fragments supported replication less efficiently than the human fragments in the short-term and long-term assays. This result suggests that while the sequence signals involved in replication in human cells are found frequently in human DNA, they are uncommon in bacterial DNA.     

Isolation and partial characterization of replication intermediates in Chironomus polytene chromosomes

DNA replication was investigated in cells with polytene chromosomes. The cells were obtained from the salivary glands of the dipteran Chironomus tentans. Polytene chromosomes are characterized by a specific and constant band — interband structure formed by the lateral association of homologous chromatids side by side. — The salivary gland DNA was labelled by injection of radioactive precursor into the living animal, extracted with a neutral nondenaturing buffer at 25° C and finally characterized by agarose gel electrophoresis. Radioactive DNA pulse-labelled for 30–60 min was released from the polytene chromosomes during cell lysis in the form of double-stranded fragments. The fragments, which show a heterogeneous appearance in gel electrophoresis, are probably produced in the living cell by the joining of several Okazaki fragments. The release of the fragments from the polytene chromosome is prevented by lysis at 0° C instead of 25° C. The size of the double-stranded fragments range between 3.75–6×10⁶ D. Moreover, after a time-lag the fragments are joined together to produce a high-molecular weight DNA. The existence of these nascent DNA fragments is discussed in relation to an earlier proposal that each band in the polytene chromosome may function as a separate replication unit.     

DNA polymerase delta is highly processive with proliferating cell nuclear antigen and undergoes collision release upon completing DNA

In most cells, 100-1000 Okazaki fragments are produced for each replicative DNA polymerase present in the cell. For fast-growing cells, this necessitates rapid recycling of DNA polymerase on the lagging strand. Bacteria produce long Okazaki fragments (1-2 kb) and utilize a highly processive DNA polymerase III (pol III), which is held to DNA by a circular sliding clamp. In contrast, Okazaki fragments in eukaryotes are quite short, 100-250 bp, and thus the eukaryotic lagging strand polymerase does not require a high degree of processivity. The lagging strand polymerase in eukaryotes, polymerase delta (pol delta), functions with the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) sliding clamp. In this report, Saccharomyces cerevisiae pol delta is examined on model substrates to gain insight into the mechanism of lagging strand replication in eukaryotes. Surprisingly, we find pol delta is highly processive with PCNA, over at least 5 kb, on Replication Protein A (RPA)-coated primed single strand DNA. The high processivity of pol delta observed in this report contrasts with its role in synthesis of short lagging strand fragments, which require it to rapidly dissociate from DNA at the end of each Okazaki fragment. We find that this dilemma is solved by a "collision release" process in which pol delta ejects from PCNA upon extending a DNA template to completion and running into the downstream duplex. The released pol delta transfers to a new primed site, provided the new site contains a PCNA clamp. Additional results indicate that the collision release mechanism is intrinsic to the pol3/pol31 subunits of the pol delta heterotrimer.     

A broad replication origin of Drosophila melanogaster, oriD α, consists of AT-rich multiple discrete initiation sites

This work shows that the replication origin of Drosophila melanogaster, oriDalpha, consists of multiple discrete initiation sites. We attempted to map at high resolution the initiation sites in oriDalpha with a quantitative nascent DNA abundance assay using a competitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. Nascent DNA was prepared from either cells blocked in very early S-phase and then labeled with 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU), or asynchronously growing cells labeled briefly with BrdU. Denatured DNA was size-fractionated in alkaline sucrose gradients. BrdU-labeled nascent DNA was immuno-affinity purified using anti-BrdU antibodies. DNA was quantified with a competitive PCR method before and after immuno-purification. The results indicated that oriDalpha, whose size was presumed to be about 10 kb from two-dimensional gel electrophoretic analysis, contained four major initiation sites in its central 2.8 kb region, and six to approximately eight sites in 8.4 kb. All initiation sites corresponded with AT-rich sequences. Detailed analysis of one major initiation site indicated that its range was restricted to 700 bp.     

Double-stranded DNA with the size expected of replicons can be released from Chironomus polytene chromosomes

The effect of the drug 5-fluorodeoxyuridine on DNA synthesis in Chironomus polytene chromosomes was investigated. The DNA was labelled by injection of radioactive precursor into living animals pre-treated with the drug, extracted with a neutral non-denaturing buffer at 25 ° C and then characterized by gel electrophoresis. After a short pulse a heterogeneous double-stranded DNA population is released from the polytene chromosome. These fragments are later joined together to produce a double-stranded DNA with a size ranging between 8–13 × 10⁶ D. The release of both types of fragments from the polytene chromosome is prevented by lysing the cells at 0 ° C instead of at 25 ° C. The larger double-stranded DNA has the size expected of replicons in Chironomus. The results are discussed in relation to the organization of replication in polytene chromosomes.     

Replication termini in the rDNA of synchronized pea root cells (Pisum sativum)

In synchronized root cells of Pisum sativum (cv. Alaska) the joining of nascent replicons is delayed until cells reach the S-G(2) boundary or early G(2) phase. To determine if the delayed ligation of nascent chains occurs at specific termination sites, we mapped the location of arrested forks in the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) repeats from cells in late S and G(2) phases. Two-dimensional (neutral-alkaline) agarose electrophoresis and Southern blot hybridization with specific rDNA sequences show that only cells located at the S-G(2) boundary and early G(2) phase produce alkali-released rDNA fragments of discrete size. The released fragments are from a particular restriction fragment, demonstrating that the replication forks stop non-randomly within the rDNA repeats. Indirect end-labeling with probes homologous to one or the other end of the fork-containing restriction fragment shows that there are two termination regions, T(1) and T(2), where forks stop. T(1) is located in the non-transcribed spacer and T(2) is at the junction between the non-transcribed spacer and the 18S gene. The two termini are separated by 1.3 kb. Replication forks stop at identical sites in both the 8.6- and 9.0-kb rDNA repeat size classes indicating that these sites are sequence determined.     

Analysis of the autonomous replication behavior in human cells of the dihydrofolate reductase putative chromosomal origin of replication.

Chinese hamster genomic DNA sequences from the region downstream of the dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) gene reported to contain a chromosomal origin of bidirectional DNA replication (OBR-1) were tested for their ability to support autonomous DNA replication in human cells. A 13.3 kilobase fragment containing OBR-1 and surrounding sequences supported replication in short-term and long-term replication assays, while a 4.5 kb fragment containing OBR-1 did not support substantial replication in either assay. These results are consistent with our previous observations that large fragments of human DNA support replication, while smaller fragments are less efficient. The replication activities of plasmids containing OBR-1 were no greater than those of randomly chosen human fragments of similar size. Furthermore, two-dimensional gel analysis of plasmids containing OBR-1 indicated that initiation does not preferentially occur within the OBR-1 region. These results suggest that in the context of autonomous replication, the DHFR sequences tested do not contain genetic information specifying site-specific replication initiation. Possible implications of these results for chromosomal replication are discussed.     

There exists a distinct stage during mammalian DNA synthesis immediately after joining of replication intermediates.

We describe an approach, using alkaline cell lysis and digestion with nuclease S1, which permits to distinguish between newly ligated DNA and the DNA of mature chromatin. When cells with steady-state labelled DNA (mature DNA) are analyzed, the results show labelled "nucleosomal-sized" DNA. However, when DNA of cells pulse-labelled with thymidine for 45 seconds is examined one can detect only large DNA. The newly ligated DNA is not reduced to "nucleosomal-sized" DNA by nuclease S1. When the large DNA is denatured in formamide one can detect 10 kb DNA fragments. Furthermore in pulse-chase experiments there appear, after formamide-treatment, increasing amounts of "nucleosomal-sized" DNA with a parallel decrease in the amount of 10 kb DNA fragments. Hence the newly ligated, large, DNA differs from mature DNA and represents a distinct stage during DNA replication.     

Structure of chromatin at deoxyribonucleic acid replication forks: prenucleosomal deoxyribonucleic acid is rapidly excised from replicating simian virus 40 chromosomes by micrococcal nuclease

Replicating simian virus 40 (SV40) chromosomes were found to be similar to other eukaryotic chromosomes in that the rate and extent of micrococcal nuclease (MNase) digestion were greater with replicating than with nonreplicating mature SV40 chromatin. MNase digestion of replicating SV40 chromosomes, pulse labeled in either intact cells or nuclear extracts, resulted in the rapid release of nascent DNA as essentially bare fragments of duplex DNA (3-7S) that had an average length of 120 base pairs and were degraded during the course of the reaction. In addition, nucleosomal monomers, equivalent in size to those from mature chromosomes, were released. On the other hand, MNase digestion of uniformly labeled mature SV40 chromosomes resulted in the release of only nucleosomal monomers and oligomers. The small nascent DNA fragments released from replicating chromosomes represented prenucleosomal DNA (PN-DNA) from the region of replication forks that encompasses the actual sites of DNA synthesis and includes Okazaki fragments. Predigestion of replicating SV40 chromosomes with both Escherichia coli exonuclease III (3'-5') and bacteriophage T7 gene 6 exonuclease (5'-3') resulted in complete degradation of PN-DNA. This result, together with the observation that isolated PN-DNA annealed equally well to both strands of SV40 restriction fragments, demonstrated that PN-DNA originates from both sides of replication forks. Over 90% of isolated Okazaki fragments annealed only to the retrograde DNA template. The characteristics of isolated PN-DNA were assessed by examining its sensitivity to MNase and single strand specific S1 endonuclease, sedimentation behavior before and after deproteinization, buoyant density in CsCl after formaldehyde treatment, and size on agarose gels. In addition, it was observed that MNase digestion of purified SV40 DNA also resulted in the release of a transient intermediate similar in size to PN-DNA, indicating that a DNA-protein complex is not required to account for the appearance of PN-DNA. These and other data provide a model of replicating chromosomes in which DNA synthesis occurs on a region of replication forks that is free of nucleosomes and is designated as prenucleosomal DNA.     

Size distribution of DNA replicative intermediates in bacteriophage P4 and in Escherichia coli.

We have tested the hypothesis that Okazaki fragment replicative intermediates have defined termini using as a model system the in vivo DNA replication of the tiny bacteriophage P4. The kinetics of formation of intermediates in P4 DNA replication have been investigated. P4 DNA replication in DNA polymerase I-deficient mutants generates Okazaki fragments with a size distribution similar to that in uninfected cells. When P4-derived Okazaki fragments are resolved by agarose gel electrophoresis, no discrete size classes appear. This finding is incompatible with sequence-specific models of Okazaki fragment formation but supports the view that these replication intermediates are initiated and terminated at random locations on the P4 chromosome.     

Replication intermediates formed during initiation of DNA synthesis in methotrexate-resistant CHOC 400 cells are enriched for sequences derived from a specific, amplified restriction fragment

1-beta-D-Arabinofuranosylcytosine (ara-C) inhibits nuclear DNA replication in Chinese hamster ovary cells by an efficient chain termination mechanism without affecting the rate at which cells traverse G1 and enter S [Heintz, N. H., & Hamlin, J. L. (1983) Biochemistry 22, 3557-3562]. Here we have employed ara-C to enrich for replication intermediates formed during initiation of DNA synthesis in synchronized CHOC 400 cells, a methotrexate-resistant derivative of Chinese hamster ovary cells that contains approximately 1000 copies of an early replicating 150-kb chromosomal domain. This highly amplified domain includes the gene for dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). CHOC 400 cells were collected at the G1/S boundary of the cell cycle with aphidicolin prior to release into S in the presence of both [methyl-3H] thymidine and various concentrations of ara-C. Chromatographic fractionation of restriction endonuclease digests over benzoylated naphthoylated DEAE-cellulose (BND-cellulose) showed that high concentrations of ara-C inhibited the maturation of chromosomal replication intermediates containing ssDNA (replication forks) into dsDNA for up to 60 min. The effect of ara-C on the sequence complexity of replication intermediates formed during early S phase was determined by hybridizing purified intermediates labeled with 32P in vitro to Southern blots of genomic DNA derived from both methotrexate-sensitive and methotrexate-resistant Chinese hamster ovary cells. In the absence of ara-C, 32P-labeled ssDNA BND-cellulose fractions from cultures released into S for 30-60 min hybridized to a spectrum of restriction fragments encompassing 40-50 kb of the amplified DHFR domain.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Fate of Recipient Deoxyribonucleic Acid During Transformation in Haemophilus influenzae

During genetic transformation of Haemophilus influenzae, segments of the host deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) corresponding to the integrating donor DNA were degraded and liberated into the medium. This degradation was detected by the release of the radioactive label from host DNA during a time period matching the time of development of maximal linkage between donor and host markers. The host label released above that released from nontransformed, control cultures was equivalent to about 2% of the host genome or 16 x 10(6) daltons of DNA. The released, labeled material was acid-soluble and dialyzable. The label release from control cultures was unaffected at 30 C; at this temperature, the recombination-specific release from transformed cells was suppressed. High molecular weight fragments of host DNA corresponding in size to the donor fragments could not be found free within the cell, weakly bound to other host DNA, or bound to non-integrated donor DNA by a reciprocal cross mechanism.     

Detection, sequence patterns and function of unusual DNA structures.

Unusual DNA structures were detected by an electrophoretic procedure in which DNA fragments were separated according to size on agarose gels and then by shape on polyacrylamide gels. Fragments from yeast centromeres migrated faster in polyacrylamide than predicted from their base composition and size and this property was attributed to a nonrandom distribution of oligomeric A tracts that exhibited minima at 10-11 base intervals. Fragments from seven loci in 107 kb of DNA migrated anomalously slow and these fragments contained blocks of A2-6 in a 10-11 base periodicity which is indicative of bent DNA. The most pronounced bent sequences were found within yeast ARS1 and centered at 245 and 240 bp from the left and right ends of the adenovirus genome. Each sequence is approximately 150 bp away from a replication origin and the adenovirus sequences are within 50 bp of enhancers. Nuclear matrix attachment sites, which are also adjacent to enhancers, contain sequences characteristic of bent DNA. These results suggest that bent structures reside at the base of DNA loops in chromosomes.     

Asymmetric field inversion gel electrophoresis: a new method for detecting DNA double-strand breaks in mammalian cells

A new method is described for detecting DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) that utilizes asymmetric field inversion gel electrophoresis (AFIGE). DNA purified from cells in agarose plugs is subjected to AFIGE and DNA breakage quantitated by the fraction of DNA released from the plug. To test the specificity of the method for DNA DSBs, purified DNA in agarose plugs was treated for increasing times with restriction endonuclease, XhoI. After an initial time period, the fraction of DNA released increased in direct proportion to time. This correlates with the expected response for a randomly broken DNA molecule. In contrast, treatment with the single-strand breaking agent, hydrogen peroxide, over a 1000-fold range produced no release of DNA from the plug. Thus the assay appears to be specific for DNA DSBs and was used to measure DNA breaks induced by gamma radiation. Purified DNA, irradiated in agarose plugs, exhibited a log-linear dose response up to doses that release greater than 90% DNA from the plug. When live cells were irradiated in agarose, a similar linear dose response was observed up to 40 Gy and a significant signal as low as 2.5 Gy. Also in live cells, a threefold lower percentage of DNA was released from the plug over the same dose range. However, less DNA per gray is released at doses above 40 Gy and may reflect a crosslinking effect produced by the irradiation of DNA in live cells. DNA which was "pulse-labeled" was used to test the effect of DNA replication on the ability of AFIGE to detect DNA DSBs. Replicating DNA irradiated in the cell or after purification exhibited a reduced rate of release from the plug per dose of irradiation. Overall, the above results indicate that AFIGE is a sensitive method for detecting DSBs in DNA.     

Early-replicating DNA from mosquito cells is associated with a distinct EcoRI fragment

In an effort to define an origin of bi-directional DNA replication (OBR) in mosquito genomic DNA, we applied methods that take advantage of characteristic features of single-stranded DNA to methotrexate-resistant Aedes albopictus cells. The Mtx-5011-256 cells contained approximately 1000 copies of a 200 kb amplicon containing the dihydrofolate reductase locus, which likely contained one or more replication origins. When Mtx-5011-256 cells were synchronized by treatment with hydroxyurea, released into the S phase of the cell cycle, and labeled in vivo with tritiated DNA precursors, a 1.9 kb EcoRI fragment was preferentially labeled in EcoRI-digested genomic DNA. Similarly, we detected a 1.9 kb EcoRI fragment in DNA from wild type cells after cell cycle synchronization and in vivo labeling. In a complementary method, unlabeled single-stranded DNA was isolated from Mtx-5011-256 cells, labeled in vitro, and hybridized to EcoRI-digested genomic DNA from mosquito cells. The labeled probe hybridized preferentially to a 1.9 kb fragment. Finally, a 1.9 kb EcoRI fragment was detected when nascent DNA was recovered from unsynchronized cells, made double-stranded by in vitro labeling, and digested with EcoRI. Taken together, these results suggest that in Aedes albopictus mosquito cells, many replication origins used at different times during S are flanked by EcoRI sites that define a 1.9 kb fragment, which has become more abundant in Mtx-5011-256 cells because it occurs in the dhfr amplicon. Tentative mapping of this origin to amplicon DNA remains ambiguous, further suggesting that a repeated sequence element occurs at or near the origin of replication.     

Autonomous replicating sequences from intron of human ras gene in a simian virus 40 T antigen dependent system

Of the several DNA fragments present in the human lung cancer gene, 1.1 and 2.0 kilobase (kb) fragments corresponding to the intron of this gene were hybridized to a half part of the 27 nucleotides perfect palindrome present in the initiation part of replication in simian virus 40 (SV40) DNA. These two fragments cloned in pBR322 had good template activity, and the initiation of DNA replication started from the region of these fragments in an in vitro system, in which the initiation of DNA replication occurs on cloned DNA containing SV40 origin of DNA replication as described previously. Furthermore, these two clones could replicate autonomously in nuclei of SV40 transformed Cos cells, producing SV40 T antigen constitutively when the clones were transfected into Cos cells. These results show that functional SV40 origin-like sequences are present in human genomes, and they can replicate autonomously within the cells which are producing SV40 T antigen.     

A polyoma-based episomal vector efficiently expresses exogenous genes in mouse embryonic stem cells.

We describe the ability of novel episomally maintained vectors to efficiently promote gene expression in embryonic stem (ES) cells as well as in established mouse cell lines. Extrachromosomal maintenance of our vectors is based on the presence of polyoma virus DNA sequences, including the origin of replication harboring a mutant enhancer (PyF101), and a modified version of the polyoma early region (LT20) encoding the large T antigen only. Reporter gene expression from such extrachromosomally replicating vectors was approximately 10-fold higher than expression from replication-incompetent control plasmids. After transfection of different ES cell lines, the polyoma virus-derived plasmid variant pMGD20neo (7.2 kb) was maintained episomally in 16% of the G418-resistant clones. No chromosomal integration of pMGD20neo vector DNA was detected in ES cells that contained episomal vector DNA even after long term passage. The vector's replication ability was not altered after insertion of up to 10 kb hprt gene fragments. Besides undifferentiated ES cells, the polyoma-based vectors were also maintained extrachromosomally in differentiating ES cells and embryoid bodies as well as in established mouse cell lines.     

Monitoring S phase progression globally and locally using BrdU incorporation in TK(+) yeast strains

Eukaryotic chromosome replication is initiated from numerous origins and its activation is temporally controlled by cell cycle and checkpoint mechanisms. Yeast has been very useful in defining the genetic elements required for initiation of DNA replication, but simple and precise tools to monitor S phase progression are lacking in this model organism. Here we describe a TK(+) yeast strain and conditions that allow incorporation of exogenous BrdU into genomic DNA, along with protocols to detect the sites of DNA synthesis in yeast nuclei or on combed DNA molecules. S phase progression is monitored by quantification of BrdU in total yeast DNA or on individual chromosomes. Using these tools we show that yeast chromosomes replicate synchronously and that DNA synthesis occurs at discrete subnuclear foci. Analysis of BrdU signals along single DNA molecules from hydroxyurea-arrested cells reveals that replication forks stall 8-9 kb from origins that are placed 46 kb apart on average. Quantification of total BrdU incorporation suggests that 190 'early' origins have fired in these cells and that late replicating territories might represent up to 40% of the yeast genome. More generally, the methods outlined here will help understand the kinetics of DNA replication in wild-type yeast and refine the phenotypes of several mutants.     

Physical mapping of origins of replication in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

We isolated four fragments from the Schizosaccharomyces pombe genome that mediate autonomous replication. A two-dimensional gel analysis revealed that in each case initiation could be mapped to within the S. pombe sequences. In three of the fragments, initiation could be mapped to one discrete location. In the fourth fragment, subcloning and two-dimensional gel analysis suggested that two discrete origins of replication were located within 3 kb of each other. When in proximity, usually only one of these origins fired, suggesting origin interference. Two-dimensional gel analysis of the four origin fragments at their genomic locations demonstrated that each is used in the chromosomes, but in only a subset of cells or cell divisions. The S. pombe genome appears to contain many discrete origins, not all of which fire in any given cell and some of which are closely spaced. Not I/Sfi I mapping of the five origins from this and a previous study indicates that they are randomly distributed throughout the genome and appear to be representative of chromosomal origins of replication in this organism. We compare the features of S. pombe replication origins with those of S. cerevisiae and animal cells.     

水稻核基因组DNA的YAC克隆和鉴定

将EcoRI部分消化的水稻(Oryza sativa L.)细胞核高分子量DNA电泳分部,回收大于200kb的片段,与内切酶消化过的酵母人工染色体(YAC)双质粒载体pJs97。pJS98DNA连接,转化酵母YPH252感受态原生质球,用ura^-,TrP^-双选择培养基直接筛选转化子,已获得2 000多个克隆。转化子DNA的southern杂交显示插入片段在200～820kb范围。