The effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Rhizophagus intraradices and soil microbial community on a model plant community in a post-mining soil

Plant Ecology - The aim of this study was to assess the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Rhizophagus intraradices and soil microbial groups and their interactions on a simple plant community...     

Phosphorus uptake by a community of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in jarrah forest

Communities of indigenous arbusuclar mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are expected to alter phosphorus uptake and biomass productivity of plants according to characteristics of the life cycles of the fungi present and the way they interact with each other inside roots and with host plants. Differences in the relative abundance of AM fungi inside roots could influence P uptake if the fungi present differ in effectiveness at accessing P and transferring it to the plant. However, it is difficult to assess the contribution of AM fungi under field conditions. We investigated P uptake, from point sources of P placed 2, 4 and 6 cm from roots, by plants colonised by a community of AM fungi in jarrah forest soil. Roots were retained within a mesh bag to prevent them from growing towards the point source of P. The relative abundance of morphotypes of fungi inside roots and the P status of plants were assessed after 12 and 16 weeks. First, a bioassay was carried out in undisturbed forest soil cores using two host plants, a forest understorey plant Phyllanthus calycinus Labill and the annual pasture species subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneaumL.), to assess the infectivity of the indigenous community of AM fungi. Roots of both bioassay host plants were colonised in similar proportions by morphotypes of AM fungi resembling Glomus, Acaulospora, Scutellospora and fine endophytes. In this bioassay, there were positive correlations between the proportion of root length colonised and plant biomass and P uptake for P. calycinus, but not for subterranean clover. In the experiment assessing the capacity of P. calycinus to access P placed at increasing distances from the root, shoot P content and concentration in P. calycinus were greater when P was placed 2 cm compared with 4 and 6 cm from roots. The length of hyphae in the vicinity of the point source of P decreased with increasing distance from the plant. The extent to which the individual AM fungi were involved in P uptake is not known. The Glomus morphotype was dominant at both times of sampling.     

Small-scale spatial heterogeneity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal abundance and community composition in a wetland plant community

Although it has become increasingly clear that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) play important roles in population, community, and ecosystem ecology, there is limited information on the spatial structure of the community composition of AMF in the field. We assessed small-scale spatial variation in the abundance and molecular diversity of AMF in a calcareous fen, where strong underlying environmental gradients such as depth to water table may influence AMF. Throughout an intensively sampled 2 × 2 m plot, we assessed AMF inoculum potential at a depth of 0–6 and 6–12 cm and molecular diversity of the AMF community using terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism of 18S rDNA. Inoculum potential was only significantly spatially autocorrelated at a depth of 6–12 cm and was significantly positively correlated with depth to water table at both depths. Molecular diversity of the AMF community was highly variable within the plot, ranging from 2–14 terminal restriction fragments (T-RFs) per core, but the number of T-RFs did not relate to water table or plant species richness. Plant community composition was spatially autocorrelated at small scales, but AMF community composition showed no significant spatial autocorrelation. Saturated soils of calcareous fens contain many infective AMF propagules and the abundance and diversity of AMF inoculum is patchy over small spatial scales. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Phylogeny of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi predicts community composition of symbiosis-associated bacteria

Many physicochemical and biotic aspects of the soil environment determine the community composition of bacteria. In this study, we examined the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, common symbionts of higher plants, on the composition of bacterial communities after long-term (7-8 years) enrichment culture in the presence of a plant host. We showed that the phylogeny of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal isolates was a highly significant predictor of bacterial community composition, as assessed by cluster analysis, redundancy analysis and linear discriminant analysis of phospholipid fatty acid patterns. Numerous phospholipid fatty acids differed between the phylogenetic groupings; this pattern also held for fungal-origin phospholipid fatty acids and in a combined bacterial/fungal analysis, suggesting that categorizing phospholipid fatty acids into predominantly bacterial and fungal origin did not affect the overall outcome. The mechanisms underlying this observation could include substrate quality (and quantity) effects, interactions mediated by the host plant (e.g. rhizodeposition) and direct biotic interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and bacterial populations. Our results suggest that aspects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal functions may be partially explained by the symbiosis-accompanying bacterial communities, a possibility that should be explicitly considered in studies examining the roles of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species diversity in soil and ecosystem processes.     

Interactions between an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus and a soil microbial community mediating litter decomposition

We investigated arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) alteration of microbial mediation of litter decomposition. AMF (Glomus hoi) were either allowed access to or excluded from Plantago lanceolata L. root litter embedded in soil; litter was labeled with either (13) C only or (13) C and (15) N. Plant N uptake was significantly increased if AMF accessed the litter, and (15) N analysis of the plant material indicated that 2-3% of plant N originated from litter. Succession of the soil community mediating decomposition was assessed by phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) combined with (13) C-PLFA. During the first 21?days of decomposition, saprotrophic fungi and Gram-negative bacteria were the dominant consumers of litter C. As decomposition progressed however, (13) C content of the fungal biomarkers declined substantially, and Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria became the primary reservoirs of labeled litter C. The putative PLFA marker for AMF (16:1ω5c) originated primarily from non-AMF sources. In AMF-invaded root litter, Gram-negative, Gram-positive, and 16:1ω5c markers became less (13) C-enriched relative to their counterparts in non-AMF-invaded microcosms during active decomposition. These patterns of (13) C: (12) C enrichment may result from AMF supply of (12) C from the plant to the decomposing soil microbial community; such C inputs could alter the microbial mediation of litter decomposition.     

Jasmonates in arbuscular mycorrhizal interactions

The mutualistic interaction between plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is believed to be regulated from the plant side among other signals by the action of phytohormones. Evidences for this are based mainly on application experiments and determination of phytohormone levels in AM roots by comparison to non-mycorrhizal roots. In case of jasmonates, additional proof is given by reverse genetic approaches, which led to first insights into their putative role in the establishment and functioning of the symbiosis. This review summarizes the current data about phytohormone action in AM roots and the role of jasmonates in particular.     

铜胁迫对丛枝菌根真菌群落功能的影响

过去20年来,对不同来源丛枝菌根真菌(AMF)的功能开展了大量研究,但多数基于对单个AMF功能的比较,群落水平的研究较少,且很多研究混淆了AMF来源和群落结构对其功能的影响,忽略了宿主的重要作用.本研究通过两个短期温室盆栽试验,分析了铜胁迫对AMF群落结构的影响,比较了不同AMF群落的功能差异.结果表明:铜胁迫显著改变了AMF群落的孢子丰度和组成.以根内球囊霉和幼套球囊霉为优势种的AMF群落有效减缓了铜胁迫对玉米生长和部分生理特性的抑制作用.     

Short-term waterlogging increases arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal species richness and shifts community composition

Plant and Soil - Our aim was to investigate the effects of short-term waterlogging in shaping communities of the obligately aerobic AMF in roots of Populus deltoides. AMF community in populus roots...     

Genetic processes in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (Glomeromycota) colonize roots of the majority of land plants and facilitate their mineral nutrient uptake. Consequently, AM fungi play an important role in terrestrial ecosystems and are becoming a component of sustainable land management practices. The absence of sexual reproductive structures in modern Glomeromycota combined with their long evolutionary history suggest that these fungi may represent an ancient asexual lineage of great potential interest to evolutionary biology. However, many aspects of basic AM fungal biology, including genome structure, within-individual genetic variation, and reproductive mode are poorly understood. These knowledge gaps hinder research on the mechanisms of AM fungal interactions with individual plants and plant communities, and utilization of AM fungi in agricultural practices. I present here the current state of research on the reproduction in AM fungi and indicate what new findings can be expected in the future.     

Preliminary assessment of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity and community structure in an urban ecosystem

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) species richness, composition, spore density and diversity indices were evaluated in the Phoenix metropolitan area, Arizona, USA at 20 sampling sites selected to represent the four predominant land-use types found in the greater urban area: urban-residential, urban non-residential, agriculture and desert. AMF spores were extracted and identified from soil samples and from trap cultures established using soil collected at each site. Data were analyzed according to land use, land-use history, soil chemistry and vegetation characteristics at each site. Current agricultural sites were associated with decreased spore densities and historically agricultural sites with decreased species richness. Overall species composition was similar to that previously reported for the Sonoran desert, but composition at each sampling site was influenced by the vegetation from which samples were collected. Sites with the highest degrees of similarity in AMF species composition were also similar to each other in native plants or land use. Conversely, sites with the lowest similarity in AMF composition were those from which the majority of samples were collected from non-mycorrhizal plants, predominately ectomycorrhizal plants or bare soil. Spores of Glomus microggregatum were most abundant in urban sites, while those of G. eburneum were most abundant in desert and agricultural sites. Further studies are needed to determine the functional implications of shifts in AMF communities in urban ecosystems, including effects on plant primary productivity.     

Simulated nitrogen deposition affects community structure of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in northern hardwood forests

Our previous investigation found elevated nitrogen deposition caused declines in abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) associated with forest trees, but little is known about how nitrogen affects the AMF community composition and structure within forest ecosystems. We hypothesized that N deposition would lead to significant changes in the AMF community structure. We studied the diversity and community structure of AMF in northern hardwood forests after more than 12 years of simulated nitrogen deposition. We performed molecular analyses on maple (Acer spp.) roots targeting the 18S rDNA region using the fungal‐specific primers AM1 and NS31. PCR products were cloned and identified using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and sequencing. N addition significantly altered the AMF community structure, and Glomus group A dominated the AMF community. Some Glomus operational taxonomic units (OTUs) responded negatively to N inputs, whereas other Glomus OTUs and an Acaulospora OTU responded positively to N inputs. The observed effect on community structure implies that AMF species associated with maples differ in their response to elevated nitrogen. Given that functional diversity exists among AMF species and that N deposition has been shown to select less beneficial fungi in some ecosystems, this change in community structure could have implications for the functioning of this type of ecosystem.     

Medicago species affect the community composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi associated with roots

Sequencing of the 5' end of the large ribosomal subunit (LSU rDNA) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were combined to assess the impact of four annual Medicago species (Medicago laciniata, Medicago murex, Medicago polymorpha and Medicago truncatula) on the genetic diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, and on the relative abundance of representative AM fungal genotypes, in a silty-thin clay soil (Mas d'Imbert, France). Two hundred and forty-six Glomeromycete LSU rDNA sequences from the four plant species and the bulk soil were analysed. The high bootstrap values of the phylogenetic tree obtained allowed the delineation of 12 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), all belonging to Glomus. Specific primers targeting Glomeromycetes and major OTUs were applied to quantify their abundance by qPCR. Glomeromycetes and targeted OTUs were significantly more abundant in the root tissues than in the bulk soil, and the frequencies of three of them differed significantly in the root tissues of the different plant species. These differences indicate that, despite the absence of strict host specificity in mycorrhizal symbiosis, there was a preferential association between some AM fungal and plant genotypes.     

Influence of arbuscular mycorrhizal mycelial exudates on soil bacterial growth and community structure

Plant root systems colonized by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi have previously been shown to influence soil bacterial populations; however, the direct influence of the AM extraradical mycelium itself on bacterial growth and community composition is not well understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of exudates produced by AM extraradical mycelia on the growth and development of an extracted soil bacterial community in vitro. The chemical composition of the mycelial exudates was analysed using proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Following the addition of exudates to a bacterial community extracted from soil, bacterial growth and vitality were determined using a bacterial vitality stain and fluorescence microscopy. Changes in community composition were also analysed at various times over the course of 3 days by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis, in combination with cloning and sequencing of 16S rRNA genes. Mycelial exudates increased bacterial growth and vitality and changed bacterial community composition. Several Gammaproteobacteria, including a taxon within the Enterobacteriaceae, increased in frequency of occurrence in response to AM mycelial exudates. This study is the first attempt to identify carbohydrates from the extraradical mycelium of an AM fungus, and demonstrates the direct effects of mycelial exudates on a soil bacterial community.