Harmful Cyanobacterial Blooms: Causes, Consequences, and Controls

Cyanobacteria are the Earth’s oldest oxygenic photoautotrophs and have had major impacts on shaping its biosphere. Their long evolutionary history (～3.5 by) has enabled them to adapt to geochemical and climatic changes, and more recently anthropogenic modifications of aquatic environments, including nutrient over-enrichment (eutrophication), water diversions, withdrawals, and salinization. Many cyanobacterial genera exhibit optimal growth rates and bloom potentials at relatively high water temperatures; hence global warming plays a key role in their expansion and persistence. Bloom-forming cyanobacterial taxa can be harmful from environmental, organismal, and human health perspectives by outcompeting beneficial phytoplankton, depleting oxygen upon bloom senescence, and producing a variety of toxic secondary metabolites (e.g., cyanotoxins). How environmental factors impact cyanotoxin production is the subject of ongoing research, but nutrient (N, P and trace metals) supply rates, light, temperature, oxidative stressors, interactions with other biota (bacteria, viruses and animal grazers), and most likely, the combined effects of these factors are all involved. Accordingly, strategies aimed at controlling and mitigating harmful blooms have focused on manipulating these dynamic factors. The applicability and feasibility of various controls and management approaches is discussed for natural waters and drinking water supplies. Strategies based on physical, chemical, and biological manipulations of specific factors show promise; however, a key underlying approach that should be considered in almost all instances is nutrient (both N and P) input reductions; which have been shown to effectively reduce cyanobacterial biomass, and therefore limit health risks and frequencies of hypoxic events.     

Coloniality in the phylum Rotifera

Coloniality in the phylum Rotifera is defined and reviewed. Only two families of rotifers contain truly colonial forms: Flosculariidae and Conochilidae (order Gnesiotrocha, suborder Flosculariacea). Most species form intraspecific colonies ranging in size from a few to about 200 individuals, but species that produce enormous colonies (> 1000 individuals) are also known. All seven genera of the Flosculariidae contain species that form colonies to widely varying degrees (Beauchampia, Floscularia, Lacinularia, Limnias, Octotrocha, Ptygura, Sinantherina). All four species of the monogenetic Conochilidae (Conochilus) are colonial, but two species form colonies of only an adult and a few young. At least one other family (Philodinidae; Bdelloida) contains a species that exhibits a form of coloniality (Philodina megalotrocha). Two hypotheses that attempt to explain the adaptive significance of coloniality (Energetic Advantage and Predatory Avoidance) are reviewed and new information concerning the former is presented. Evolution of coloniality is discussed briefly.     

Coloniality has evolved once in Stolidobranch Ascidians

Ascidians exhibit a rich array of body plans and life history strategies. Colonial species typically consist of zooids embedded in a common test and brood large, fully developed larvae, while solitary species live singly and usually free-spawn eggs that develop into small, undifferentiated larvae. Ascidians in the order Stolidobranchia include both colonial and solitary species, as well as several species with intermediate morphologies. These include social species, which are colonial but do not live completely embedded in a common test, and a few solitary species that brood embryos and larvae until they are competent to metamorphose. We examined how many times coloniality has evolved within the Stolidobranchia, with phylogenetic analyses using full-length 18S rDNA and partial cytochrome oxidase B sequences for taxa in the families Molgulidae, Styelidae, and Pyuridae. Tunicata orders Phlebobranchia and Stolidobranchia are sister groups, and the family Molgulidae is a monophyletic group and should be raised to the subordinal level, as shown previously by analyses from this lab with partial 18S sequences. In contrast to previous studies, styelids and pyurids are separated into monophyletic groups by ML and Bayesian analyses. We show a single clade within the family Styelidae that contains two colonial (compound) botryllid species, a Symplegma (colonial compound), a colonial (social) species Metandrocarpa taylori, as well as four solitary species, thus confirming that the botryllids are a subfamily of the Styelidae. These results suggest that the ancestor of the Stolidobranchia was solitary and that coloniality has evolved only once within this clade of ascidians. Further phylogenetic analyses of aplousobranch and phlebobranch ascidians will be necessary to understand the number of times that coloniality has evolved within the class Ascidiacea.     

Growth Rate of Sphaerotilus in a Thermally Polluted Environment

In situ growth of Sphaerotilus on microscope slides immersed in a thermally polluted stream was studied. Ultraviolet radiation was used to differentiate between passive attachment of organisms from the water and growth of the organisms on the slides. Colonization of the slides in this environment took place solely by means of swarmer cells. A generation time of 2.3 hr was obtained at a water temperature of 18-22 C.     

Understanding Current and Potential Consequences of Population Growth

In three semiguided inquiry lessons on population biology, students use models and simulations to examine population trends and make projections. They are guided to create and evaluate data and to use algebraic and geometric representations to examine biotic and logistic growth models as part of examining human population growth. As they recognize the relationship between population growth and resources, they explore and propose solutions for addressing complex socioscientific problems. The underlying mathematics and science concepts of these learning cycle lessons can help students understand the complexity of environmental issues and prepare them to reason in an informed manner when they encounter debates on population and environmental issues that are often voiced in political arenas.     

Problems of Coloniality,Modularity, and Individuality in Sponges and Special Features of Their Morphogeneses During Growth and Asexual Reproduction

A comparative analysis of the organization of sponges has been carried out to clarify problems of their coloniality, individuality, and modularity. The morphological, physiological, morphogenetic, and immunological aspects of the problem have been analyzed. The followers of the hypothesis of colonial organization of sponges interpret the process of “new zooid” formation as an “incomplete asexual reproduction.” A comparative analysis of morphogeneses in sponges during growth processes and asexual reproduction has clearly shown them to be different. A rearrangement (remodeling) of structures accompanied by disorganization and reorganization of tissues in neighboring elements of aquiferous system is the basis of growth. Migration of polypotent and secretory cells into the core of bud development is the major mechanism of budding. The formation of new aquiferous units (aquiferous modules) does not represent an “incomplete asexual reproduction.” Thus, the terms “colony” and “zooid” cannot be applied to the sponges. A morphologically separate sponge, irrespective of its level of organization (ascon, sycon, or leucon) and the number of oscula (aquiferous modules) should be considered as an individual.     

Coloniality and colony structure in Gull-billed TernsGelochelidon nilotica

Summary Various aspects of coloniality and colony structure in the Gull-billed Tern was studied at 7 sites in Europe (Fig. 1). Gull-Billed Terns are associated actively with Black-headed GullsLarus ridibundus in N Europe, probably of protective reasons. Inter-nest distance decreased with increasing colony size apparently working as an anti-predator adaptation. Colour morphs of the young may help these to hide in various substrates. The weight of the food-items decreased from small, northern colonies to large, southern colonies. Similarly, niche breadth decreased from small, northern colonies to large, southern colonies. Food-unpredictability in northern colonies may be buffered by the wide variety of food-items. Feeding range decreased from small, northern to large, southern colonies. Communal feeding increased in Denmark from spring to autumn, apparently with increasing prey availability. The Gull-billed Tern performed a slight colony site tenacity and a marked group adherence allowing reuse of abandoned nest sites. In small, northern colonies with dispersed nests deserting flights and slight aggressiveness occurred. Young deserted colonies before fledging. In large, southern colonies with aggregated nests birds behaved very aggressively and performed communal defense of the totally nidifugous young. The adaptive significance of coloniality may have a certain species specific range within which colonies may adapt to the local environment.

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Koloniebrüten und Koloniestruktur bei der Lachseeschwalbe

Zusammenfassung An 7 Brutplätzen Europas wurden verschiedene Aspekte des Koloniebrütens der Lachseeschwalbe untersucht. In Nordeuropa schließen sich Lachseeschwalben an Lachmöwen an, möglicherweise aus Gründen verbesserten Feindschutzes. Die Nestabstände nehmen mit wachsender Koloniegröße ab. Dies ist möglicherweise eine Anpassung an Verringerung der Verluste durch Nesträuber. Unterschiedliche Färbungstypen der Dunenjungen erhöhen wahrscheinlich die Tarnung auf verschiedenem Untergrund. Das Gewicht der Beutestücke nimmt von kleinen nördlichen Kolonien zu den großen südlichen ab, in ähnlicher Weise die Breite der Nahrungsnische. In nördlichen Kolonien wird eine gewisse Unsicherheit im Nahrungsangebot wohl teilweise durch eine große Vielfalt der Nahrungsbestandteile aufgewogen. Die Größe des Gebiets, in dem Nahrung gesucht wird, nimmt von kleinen nördlichen zu größeren südlichen Kolonien ab. Gemeinsame Nahrungssuche wird in Dänemark von Frühjahr bis Herbst häufiger parallel mit zunehmend günstigerem Nahrungsangebot. Lachseeschwalben zeigen eine schwach entwickelte Brutplatztreue, jedoch eine deutliche Neigung zum Gruppenzusammenhalt, was die Wiederbesiedlung verlassener Neststandorte grundsätzlich fördert. In kleinen nördlichen Kolonien ist das Aggressivverhalten schwach ausgebildet. Die Jungen verlassen vor dem Flüggewerden die Kolonie. In großen südlichen Kolonien mit dicht beieinander angelegten Nestern verhalten sich die Brutvögel sehr aggressiv und verteidigen die Jungen — ausgeprägte Nestflüchter — gemeinsam. Koloniebrüten als Anpassungsstrategie zeigt offenbar eine artspezifische Variationsbreite, innerhalb derer einzelne Kolonien sich den örtlichen Bedingungen anpassen können.

     

Individual Growth Rate as a Measure of Competitive Advantages in Cladoceran Crustaceans

Intra- and interspecific competition for food is one of the main factors governing zooplankton community structure and the evolution of the life history of herbivorous zooplankters. Competitive advantage considered as the ability of a whole population or some developmental stages to survive at low food concentrations is related to individual growth rate rather than to the body size of zooplankters as the “size-efficiency hypothesis” postulates. The slow-growing individuals have been shown to have the most competitive advantage. The outcome of competition among cladoceran species in predator-free waterbodies depends on the trophic status of the latter. In oligo-trophic and mesotrophic waterbodies, small slow-growing cladocerans are the superior competitors, while large rapid-growing species dominate in eutrophic waters and can outcompete the small cladocerans. Small rapid-growing species, which are poor competitors, can temporarily colonize eutrophic waterbodies. Three main types of cladoceran life history represent the compromises between low population mortality during periods of food depletion and high population natality at the abundance of food.     

Reproductive Consequences of Clonal Growth in Stenocereus eruca, a Rare Clonal Cactus of the Sonoran Desert

Stenocereus eruca is a prostrated, self-incompatible cactus endemic to the Sonoran Desert that regenerates primarily through clonal propagation. Clonal growth is expected to affect mate availability by influencing the number and spatial distribution of mating types. In this paper we examine the role of clonal growth on female fecundity through a series of pollination experiments in a population of S. eruca. We set up a pollen supplementation experiment using five distance treatments with pollen collected at 1, 10, 100, 1000 and 25000 m from receptor flowers during the years 2001 and 2002 and evaluated genetic sifmilarities between pairs of receptor-donor ramets through RAPD markers. Our data on fruit set, number of seeds/fruit, germination and overall fecundity revealed that S. eruca show a significant reduction in female fecundity when pollination occurs between ramets located at short distances (1 and 10 m), while genetic data showed high levels of similarity at those distances. The reduction in female fecundity is apparently a consequence of geitonogamy and inbreeding depression. Our data suggest that clonal growth and geitonogamy are likely to be partially responsible for the low levels of sexual reproduction and seedling recruitment observed in populations of S. eruca. Co-ordinating editor: H. Kudoh     

Co-Gradient Variation in Growth Rate and Development Time of a Broadly Distributed Butterfly

Widespread species often show geographic variation in thermally-sensitive traits, providing insight into how species respond to shifts in temperature through time. Such patterns may arise from phenotypic plasticity, genetic adaptation, or their interaction. In some cases, the effects of genotype and temperature may act together to reduce, or to exacerbate, phenotypic variation in fitness-related traits across varying thermal environments. We find evidence for such interactions in life-history traits of Heteronympha merope, a butterfly distributed across a broad latitudinal gradient in south-eastern Australia. We show that body size in this butterfly is negatively related to developmental temperature in the laboratory, in accordance with the temperature-size rule, but not in the field, despite very strong temperature gradients. A common garden experiment on larval thermal responses, spanning the environmental extremes of H. merope''s distribution, revealed that butterflies from low latitude (warmer climate) populations have relatively fast intrinsic growth and development rates compared to those from cooler climates. These synergistic effects of genotype and temperature across the landscape (co-gradient variation) are likely to accentuate phenotypic variation in these traits, and this interaction must be accounted for when predicting how H. merope will respond to temperature change through time. These results highlight the importance of understanding how variation in life-history traits may arise in response to environmental change. Without this knowledge, we may fail to detect whether organisms are tracking environmental change, and if they are, whether it is by plasticity, adaptation or both.     

辨析种群增长率与种群增长速率一字之差

种群既是生物繁殖的基本单位,也是生物进化的基本单位.它是生态学中一个核心概念,现已成为每年高考必考内容之一.其中有关种群增长的问题是多年高考命题热点,种群增长率与种群增长速率虽然只有一字之差.