The fluctuating asymmetry of medieval and modern human skulls.

The analysis of fluctuating asymmetry (FA) allows for estimating the influence of stress factors on human development and allows to evaluate resistance to stress. FA is often used as a marker of prenatal stress. The aim of this work is to estimate the symmetry of skulls from selected historic human populations and to analyse changes in their morphology which have taken place over centuries. The studied material consisted of two skull samples - a modern sample containing 82 skulls and a medieval sample of 77 skulls from Gródek on the Bug River. Radiographs were taken in postero-anterior (P-A) and base projections. Images were scanned and calibrated by means of MicroStation 95 Academic Edition software. Measurements of the skull images were used to estimate FA. All data were analysed statistically. The skulls in both samples showed asymmetry. The levels of FA varied in different skull regions. A high level of FA in the calvaria and a low asymmetry for the facial part of skull is characteristic of modern skulls. In medieval skulls these relations are inverted. The higher value of FA in modern skulls is an evidence of a higher level of developmental stress in the modern population as well as of its lesser abilities to resist stress.     

The phenetic distances of the living Druze from other human populations suggest a major genetic drift from the Western Eurasian ancestral category

The objectives were to determine the expression frequency and sexual dimorphism of 16 non-metric crown traits on the sample of permanent dentitions of the living Druze population (a Near Eastern genetic isolate) in Jordan, and to assess the biological affinity of this sample to 21 regional groups, and to the living general Jordanian population, based on these traits. Druze schoolchildren (46 males, 40 females; mean age = 16.0, sd = 0.5 years) were studied in 2011. The traits were classified using the Arizona State University dental anthropology system, counted with the individual count method, and dichotomized according to the criteria of Scott and Turner for the purpose of group comparisons. Fisher's exact test for dichotomized scores was used to assess sexual dimorphism in these traits. Smith's mean measure of divergence was used to measure all pairwise distance values among the groups. Sexual dimorphism was found in five traits (i.e., UI2 interruption grooves, 3-cusped UM2, UM1 Carabelli's tubercle/cusp, 4-cusp LM1, and LM2 Y-groove pattern). This study revealed that the dental pattern of living Druze, which is similar to that of the general Jordanian population, is sufficiently distinct from the Western Eurasian pattern and all other known dental patterns to form a distinct dental pattern for the regional group or subcategory to which these two populations belong. Moreover, the relatively large distance values of the living Druze and Jordanians from the other world groups considered, including the Western Eurasian groups, suggest a similar major genetic difference of these two populations from the Western Eurasian ancestry.     

Population variation in second metacarpal sexual size dimorphism

This paper contrasts levels of sexual size dimorphism in second metacarpal osteometric and geometric morphology in two bioculturally distinctive populations: 19th century Euro-Canadian settlers, and proto/historic central Canadian Inuit. Significant within-group sexual size dimorphism is found for all variables, though few show significant interpopulation differences. However, in every case the Euro-Canadian sample is more dimorphic than the Inuit sample. Notably, differences reside in geometric measures (total area, Imax) sensitive to variation in functional strain, and thus are interpretable in light of proximate causal models, i.e., activity profiles distinct from generalized mode of subsistence. Other proximate factors, such as nutritional stress acting to diminish Inuit sexual size dimorphism, may also play a role. However, models often cited to explain dimorphism, such as marriage practice (e.g., polygyny) or division of labor situated in mode of subsistence, do not. The higher sexual size dimorphism in the 19th century settler sample belies the notion that technological progress inevitably leads to reduced dimorphism.     

Population history of the middle Euphrates valley: Dental non-metric traits at Tell Ashara,Tell Masaikh and Jebel Mashtale,Syria

Fifty-nine dental non-metric traits were scored using Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System on a sample of teeth from 350 human skeletons excavated at three sites in the lower middle Euphrates valley. The dataset was divided into six chronological subsets: Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Early Iron Age with Neo-Assyrian period, Classical/Late Antiquity, Early Islamic (Umayyad and Abbasid) period and Modern period. The matrix of Mean Measure of Divergence values exhibited temporal homogeneity of the sample with only dental non-metric trait scores in the Modern subset differing significantly from most other subsets. Such a result suggests that no major gene flow occurred in the middle Euphrates valley between the 3rd millennium BCE and the early 2nd millennium CE. Only after the Mongolian invasion and large depopulation of northern Mesopotamia in the 13th century CE a major population change occurred when the area was taken over in the 17th century by Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula.     

Sexually dimorphic pelvic morphology in South African whites and blacks

It is well known that there is metric and morphologic variation in the expression of sexual dimorphism between racial phenotypes and populations. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to assess morphologic sex differences in the pelves of South African whites and blacks. Results will be used to improve the identification of human skeletal remains by producing group specific standards. Morphologic features of both left and right os coxae were studied in a sample of 400 known sex/race individuals from the Pretoria and Dart collections. Bones that were clearly pathologic or visibly deformed were excluded from the study. Data were subjected to SPSS analysis.

Results indicated that overall, pubic bone shape was the easiest to assess and was the most consistently reliable morphological indicator of sex in both sexes and population groups. At 88% average accuracy, the most discriminating traits in whites were pubic bone shape and subpubic concavity form. In blacks, greater sciatic notch form allowed the highest separation, averaging 87.5%, followed by pubic shape at 84.5%. Important findings included the fact that there were significant differences in the accuracy of sex determination from pelvic morphology between both males and females and whites and blacks.

In conclusion, this study provides quantification of individual morphological traits in the os coxae of white and black South Africans that will be of value in forensic and archaeological analyses, especially when dealing with fragmentary remains. It also demonstrates that population differences affect the expression of sexual dimorphism and must be accounted for to develop the most effective methods of analysis.     

Methodological considerations on the study of sexual dimorphism in past human populations

The degree of sexual dimorphism in human populations is influenced by stress, social role and by labour division. However, studies on ethnographic populations provided contradictory results. Unfortunately, most of these studies were based on stature only, which, as we could observe in a survey on pre-protohistoric circum-Medirerranean samples, is a poor indicator of functionally related dimorphism. A number of skeletal measurements were examined: skull, stature, transverse trunk diameters, long bones length, circumference and section, in order to assess their usefulness as indicators of functionally related dimorphism. The best indicators were represented by section and circumference of the long bones of the limbs, followed by cross-shoulder breadth (biclavicular length), stature and limb bone length, facial measurements, cranial measurements and sacral breadth. From the methodological point of view, it was found that:

1. It is better to calculate the index of dimorphism for each trait or set of traits within each sample. Then a weighted average of all the available samples is taken. The index derived from pooling a number of samples does not make biological sense. In pooled samples the distinction of between versus within sample differences is obscured;
2. It is better to combine an index which is based on the difference between averages and one which takes variability into account, because variability can also be an aspect of sexual dimorphism;
3. It is better to apply some allometric correction to the measurements used. For instance, the log transformation produces clearer trends of differential dimorphism among the various traits.

     

The use of strontium and barium analyses for the reconstruction of the diet of the early medieval coastal population of Gdańsk (Poland): A preliminary study

Barium and strontium analyses yield an important perspective on temporal shifts in diet in relation to social and environmental circumstances. This research focuses on reconstructing dietary strategies of individuals in the early medieval (12-13th century) population of Gdańsk on the coast of the Baltic Sea. To describe these strategies where seafood rich in minerals was included in the diet, levels of strontium, barium, calcium and phosphorus were measured in first permanent molars of adult men and women whose remains were excavated from the churchyard in the city centre. Faunal remains from the excavation were analysed as an environmental background with respect to the content of the above-mentioned elements. The impact of diagenesis on the odontological material under study was also determined by an analysis of the soil derived from the grave and non-grave surroundings. For verification of diagenetic processes, the calcium/phosphorus index was used. Strontium, calcium, phosphorus and barium levels were determined with the spectrophotometric method using the latest generation plasma spectrophotometer Elan 6100 ICP-MS. From the results of the analysis of taphonomic parameters such as the soil pH, potential ion exchange in the grave surroundings and the Ca/P ratio, it can be inferred that diagenetic factors had little impact on the studied material. From this pilot study we can conclude that in the early Middle Ages in the Baltic Sea basin, seafood was included in the diet from early childhood and at the same time the diet contained calcium-rich milk products (also rich in minerals). The lack of sex differences may indicate the absence of a sex-specific nutritional strategy in childhood and early adolescence.     

Quantitative genetics of ontogeny of sexual dimorphism in red junglefowl (Gallus gallus)

We studied phenotypic patterns and underlying quantitative genetics of development of sexual size dimorphism in red junglefowl (Gallus gallus). Using a multigenerational pedigree and the 'animal model' technique, we found significant heritability for many of the size and growth-related traits we examined, as well as significant genetic correlations among them. Despite sexual size dimorphism throughout posthatching ontogeny, the genetic correlation between males and females for all size measurements and growth parameters remained high. Significant positive phenotypic and genetic correlations between the fastest rate of growth and mass at week 26 (near asymptote) indicate that faster growth when young promotes larger adult size. However, age at which peak growth is reached does not appear to be phenotypically or genetically correlated with adult size. Positive genetic correlations within traits among ages were common, demonstrating that the genetic variance important to growth is relatively consistent among ages. However, male mass and tarsus length showed no genetic correlation between week 0 values and those from later ages. The body size traits of mass and tarsus length were genetically correlated with each other in females, but this pattern was not significant in males. Thus, despite striking sexual dimorphism in size and growth trajectories, size dimorphic traits in junglefowl show, with some exceptions, genetic integration between the sexes, among ages, and between traits.     

Is sexual size dimorphism variable? Data on species of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes</Emphasis> in the Urals

Sexual dimorphism in cranial measurements was studied in Ural populations of two species of the genus Martes, M. martes and M. zibellina. The index of sexual dimorphism averaged 8.39% in the former and 9.03% in the latter, being subject to geographic variation. For the first time, temporal variability of sexual dimorphism in dimensional characters was revealed in mammals by analyzing M. zibellina samples collected in different decades of the second half of the 20th century. The majority of corresponding microtrends had reciprocating dynamics.     

Distribution of F13A phenotypes in Spain: a particularly high frequency of the F13A*2 allele.

The distribution of the phenotypes for coagulation factor XIIIA subunit (F13A) of autochthonous individuals from the following five Spanish populations was studied: Galicia, Castilla-León, Castilla-La Mancha, Extremadura and Western Andalusia. The frequency values obtained for F13A*2 ranged from 0.248 to 0.311. To date, these values are the highest recorded in the world.     

The main trends in the palaeodemography of the 7th-18th century population of Latvia

The study represents palaeodemographic research of osteological material of 3304 individuals from the funds of the Anthropological Laboratory of the Institute of History of the University of Latvia in Riga, dating from the 7th to the 18th century AD. Compensated life expectancy at birth is varying between 20.3 and 22.2 years during the research period. Crude mortality has changed between 49.3 and 45% per hundred. In the early period (7th-13th century) there is a significant male prevalence (2.2-1.4); female life expectancy at the age of 20 is on average 6.6 years less than for males. This difference decreases to 5.4 years in the 13th-18th century. According to historical demography, female life span exceeded male only in the 2nd half of 19th century. The palaeodemographic data indicate that in the 7th-18th century, women in Latvia gave birth to a mean of 4-5 children (the figure includes childless women), of whom half, at most 2-2.5, reached reproductive age, on account of high child mortality. The net reproductive rate R0 (the number of descendants per individual of the parents' generation) varies between 1 and 1.25 in the study period. Concerning the completely excavated cemeteries of Lejasbiteni (7th-10h century) and Daudziesi (16th-17th century), it was possible to calculate the size and structure of the populations that had used these cemeteries. They were similar, having 45.3-49.9% of children up to an age of 14 and 24-28% individuals over the age of 30. According to historical demography, radical improvement of the demographic situation in Latvia began in the second half of the 19th century, when the process of demographic transition in Latvia started.     

A Lack of Sexual Dimorphism in Width-to-Height Ratio in White European Faces Using 2D Photographs, 3D Scans, and Anthropometry

Facial width-to-height ratio has received a great deal of attention in recent research. Evidence from human skulls suggests that males have a larger relative facial width than females, and that this sexual dimorphism is an honest signal of masculinity, aggression, and related traits. However, evidence that this measure is sexually dimorphic in faces, rather than skulls, is surprisingly weak. We therefore investigated facial width-to-height ratio in three White European samples using three different methods of measurement: 2D photographs, 3D scans, and anthropometry. By measuring the same individuals with multiple methods, we demonstrated high agreement across all measures. However, we found no evidence of sexual dimorphism in the face. In our third study, we also found a link between facial width-to-height ratio and body mass index for both males and females, although this relationship did not account for the lack of dimorphism in our sample. While we showed sufficient power to detect differences between male and female width-to-height ratio, our results failed to support the general hypothesis of sexual dimorphism in the face.     

Univariate estimates of sexual dimorphism: The effects of intrasexual variability

The difference between male and female values of quantitative traits depends on the distribution of the variables within each sex, increasing with the rise in the difference between male and female average values and with the decrease of the dispersion of measurements in both sexes. This paper deals with the sensitivity of some widely used indices (relative difference between male and female mean values (MDI), Student's t, and the so-called Bennett-Chakraborty-Majumder D coefficient) with respect to intrasexual variability. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov distance (KS) is suggested here as a further index of dimorphism, although it is not usually utilized for this purpose. The theoretical approach is accompanied by the analysis of empirical data (metric variables obtained from a sample of present Sardinians) and by computer simulations under various assumptions. Indices based on the difference between male and female average values are not able to evaluate fully the various aspects of dimorphism. Student's t proved to be an adequate measure of whole sex differences, both in real and in simulated samples, as intrasexual variability is included in its formulation. The D index also proved to be a good measure of undivided sexual dimorphism, as it is the result of formal examination, and from application to empirical or to simulated cases. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov distance gave the best performance both in formal examination and in the whole simulation results, as it takes into account intrasexual variability, and is applicable to any kind of distribution. In simulated cases it was sensitive to variations of means and variances, and it was able to evaluate variance dimorphism. Since the last three indices measure the combined effect of size and variance dimorphism, the joint use of the MDI index is suggested in order to isolate the relative contribution of the difference between the means. Am J Phys Anthropol 109:501–508, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Early to high medieval colonization and alluvial landscape transformation of the Labe valley (Czech Republic): evaluation of archaeological,pollen and macrofossil evidence

In the High Middle Ages, a wave of landscape transformation which originated in western Europe swept across the east-central part of the subcontinent. In the Czech Republic, this happened during the 13th century and it had the same environmental attributes as in the rest of Europe—a considerable increase in population, vast deforestation resulting in a rapid increase in soil erosion, irreversible changes in forest species composition and overall formation of a cultural landscape. In the Czech Republic, the dynamics of such a radical change are poorly understood because it would require detailed archaeological, historical and palaeoecological insight into developments during the Early Middle Ages—a demand that is mostly not met. The aim of this paper is to fill in this gap. Archaeological and historical data from three early medieval strongholds located in central Bohemia, at Libice nad Cidlinou, Stará Boleslav and Hradi??ko, are summarized and evaluated. The first two sites represent well-known political and religious centres of the early Czech state in the 10 to 11th centuries, while the last was of secondary importance. These archaeological sites have radiocarbon dated pollen and plant macrofossil evidence from oxbow sedimentary sequences which are situated in the immediate vicinity of the strongholds. The issue of fluvial transport of pollen and macrofossils is also discussed. Both pollen and macrofossil data from Hradi??ko show surprisingly small impact of the stronghold on the forested alluvial environment. The vicinity of Stará Boleslav was intensively affected by human activity only during the later 11th century. It has not been possible to trace any impact of the foundation of the stronghold at Libice nad Cidlinou on the landscape. Medieval landscape change began before the 13th century in some places, as shown by the data from Stará Boleslav.     

New skeletal tuberculosis cases in past populations from Western Hungary (Transdanubia)

The distribution, antiquity and epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB) have previously been studied in osteoarchaeological material in the eastern part of Hungary, mainly on the Great Plain. The purpose of this study is to map the occurrence of skeletal TB in different centuries in the western part of Hungary, Transdanubia, and to present new cases we have found. Palaeopathological analysis was carried out using macroscopic observation supported by radiographic and molecular methods. A large human osteoarchaeological sample (n = 5684) from Transdanubian archaeological sites ranging from the 2nd to the 18th centuries served as a source of material. Spinal TB was observed in seven individuals (in three specimens with Pott's disease two of which also had cold abscess) and hip TB was assumed in one case. The results of DNA for Mycobacterium tuberculosis were positive in seven of the eight cases identified by paleopathology, and negative in the assumed case of hip TB. However, the molecular results are consistent with highly fragmented DNA, which limited further analysis. Based on the present study and previously published cases, osteotuberculosis was found in Transdanubia mainly during the 9th-13th centuries. However, there are no signs of TB in many other 9th-13th century sites, even in those that lie geographically close to those where osteotuberculous cases were found. This may be due to a true absence of TB caused by the different living conditions, way of life, or origin of these populations. An alternative explanation is that TB was present in some individuals with no typical paleopathology, but that death occurred before skeletal morphological features could develop.     

The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in the house finch. III. Developmental basis

Sexual size dimorphism of adults proximately results from a combination of sexually dimorphic growth patterns and selection on growing individuals. Yet, most studies of the evolution of dimorphism have focused on correlates of only adult morphologies. Here we examined the ontogeny of sexual size dimorphism in an isolated population of the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus). Sexes differed in growth rates and growth duration; in most traits, females grew faster than males, but males grew for a longer period. Sexual dimorphism in bill traits (bill length, width, depth) and in body traits (wing, tarsus, and tail length; mass) developed during different periods of ontogeny. Growth of bill traits was most different between sexes during the juvenile period (after leaving the nest), whereas growth of body traits was most sexually dimorphic during the first few days after hatching. Postgrowth selection on juveniles strongly influenced sexual dimorphism in all traits; in some traits, this selection canceled or reversed dimorphism patterns produced by growth differences between sexes. The net result was that adult sexual dimorphism, to a large degree, was an outcome of selection for survival during juvenile stages. We suggest that previously documented fast and extensive divergence of house finch populations in sexual size dimorphism may be partially produced by distinct environmental conditions during growth in these populations.     

Museum samples could help to reconstruct the original distribution of Salmo trutta complex in Italy

Partial D‐loop sequences of museum specimens of brown trout and marble trout (Salmo trutta species complex) collected from Mediterranean rivers in the late 19th century were analysed to help to describe the native distribution of these species. All the individuals studied carried native haplotypes, the geographic distribution of which is consistent with published data. These results indicate that museum specimens from the 19th century could represent an opportunity to get a picture of the original genetic diversity distribution of this species complex.