Signalization and cytoskeleton activity through myosin IB during the early steps of phagocytosis in Entamoeba histolytica: a proteomic approach

Phagocytosis of human cells is a crucial activity for the virulence of the human parasite Entamoeba histolytica. This protozoan invades and destroys the intestine by killing and phagocytosing epithelial cells, erythrocytes and cells from the immune system. In this study, we used magnetic beads covered with proteins from human serum as a model system to study the early events involved in phagocytosis by E. histolytica. We validated the system showing that the beads uptake triggered the activation of the actin-myosin cytoskeleton and involved a PI3-kinase as previously described for erythrophagocytosis. We purified early phagosomes from wild-type (WT) amoeba and from parasites that overproduced myosin IB (MyoIB+), the unique unconventional myosin of E. histolytica. The MyoIB+ cells exhibit a slower and more synchronized uptake process than the WT strain. Proteomic analysis by liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS) of the WT and MyoIB+ phagosomes allowed us to identify, for the first time, molecular actors involved in the early step of the uptake process. These include proteins involved in cytoskeleton activity, signalling, endocytosis, lytic activity and cell surface proteins. Interestingly, the proteins that we found specifically recruited on the phagosomes from the MyoIB+ strain were previously described in other eukarytotic cells, as involved in the regulation of cortical F-actin dynamics, such as alpha-actinin and formins. This proteomics approach allows a step further towards the understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in phagocytosis in E. histolytica that revealed some interesting differences compared with phagocytosis in macrophages or Dictyostelium discoideum, and allowed to identify putative candidates for proteins linked to myosin IB activity during the phagocytic process.     

A Genome-Wide Over-Expression Screen Identifies Genes Involved in Phagocytosis in the Human Protozoan Parasite, Entamoeba histolytica

Functional genomics and forward genetics seek to assign function to all known genes in a genome. Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite for which forward genetics approaches have not been extensively applied. It is the causative agent of amoebic dysentery and liver abscess, and infection is prevalent in developing countries that cannot prevent its fecal-oral spread. It is responsible for considerable global morbidity and mortality. Given that the E. histolytica genome has been sequenced, it should be possible to apply genomic approaches to discover gene function. We used a genome-wide over-expression screen to uncover genes regulating an important virulence function of E. histolytica, namely phagocytosis. We developed an episomal E. histolytica cDNA over-expression library, transfected the collection of plasmids into trophozoites, and applied a high-throughput screen to identify phagocytosis mutants in the population of over-expressing cells. The screen was based on the phagocytic uptake of human red blood cells loaded with the metabolic toxin, tubercidin. Expression plasmids were isolated from trophozoites that survived exposure to tubercidin-charged erythrocytes (phagocytosis mutants), and the cDNAs were sequenced. We isolated the gene encoding profilin, a well-characterized cytoskeleton-regulating protein with a known role in phagocytosis. This supports the validity of our approach. Furthermore, we assigned a phagocytic role to several genes not previously known to function in this manner. To our knowledge, this is the first genome-wide forward genetics screen to be applied to this pathogen. The study demonstrates the power of forward genetics in revealing genes regulating virulence in E. histolytica. In addition, the study validates an E. histolytica cDNA over-expression library as a valuable tool for functional genomics.     

Genomic and proteomic approaches highlight phagocytosis of living and apoptotic human cells by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Phagocytosis plays a major role during the invasive process of the human intestine by the pathogenic amoeba E. histolytica. This parasite is the etiologic agent causing amoebic dysentery, a worldwide disease causing 50 million of clinical cases leading to about 100,000 deaths annually. The invasive process is characterized by a local acute inflammation and the destruction of the intestinal tissue at the invasion site. The recent sequencing of the E. histolytica genome has opened the way to large-scale approaches to study parasite virulence such as processes involved in human cell phagocytosis. In particular, two different studies have recently described the phagosome proteome, providing new insights into the process of phagocytosis by this pathogenic protozoan. It has been previously described that E. histolytica induces apoptosis and phagocytosis of the human target cells. Induction of apoptosis by the trophozoites is thought to be involved in the close regulation of the inflammatory response occurring during infection. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms responsible for induction of apoptosis or in the recognition of apoptotic cells by E. histolytica. In this review, we comment on the recent data we obtained after isolation of the early phagosomes and the identification of its associated proteins. We focus on the surface molecules potentially involved in human cell recognition. In particular, we propose several parasite molecules, potentially involved in the induction of apoptosis and/or the phagocytosis of human apoptotic cells.     

The role of unconventional myosins in Dictyostelium endocytosis

Dictyostelium discoideum is a simple eukaryote amenable to detailed molecular studies of the endocytic processes phagocytosis and macropinocytosis. Both the actin cytoskeleton and associated myosin motors are well-described and a range of mutants are now available that enable characterization of the role of the cytoskeleton in a range of cellular functions. Molecular genetic studies have uncovered roles for two different classes of Dictyostelium unconventional myosins in endocytosis. The class I myosins contribute to both macropinocytosis and phagocytosis by playing a general role in controlling actin-dependent manipulations of the actin-rich cortex. A class VII myosin has been shown to be important for phagocytosis. This brief review summarizes what is known about the role of these different myosins in both fluid and particle uptake in this system.     

Unconventional myosins.

The unconventional myosins form a large and diverse group of molecular motors. The number of known unconventional myosins is increasing rapidly and in the past year alone two new classes have been identified. Substantial progress has been made towards characterizing the properties and functions of these motor proteins, which have been hypothesized to play fundamental roles in processes such as cell locomotion, phagocytosis and vesicle transport.     

Common pathways for receptor-mediated ingestion of Escherichia coli and LDL cholesterol by Entamoeba histolytica regulated in part by transmembrane kinase 39

The single-celled parasite, Entamoeba histolytica, is an enteric pathogen that ingests bacteria and host cells. Inhibition of phagocytosis renders the parasite avirulent. The ligand/receptor interactions that allow E. histolytica to phagocytose are not well understood. We hypothesised that E. histolytica trophozoites might accomplish ingestion through the utilisation of a scavenger receptor for cholesterol. Here we show that acetylated low density lipoprotein cholesterol was phagocytosed by amoebae via receptor mediated mechanisms. Acetylated low density lipoprotein cholesterol competitively inhibited by 31 ± 1.3% (P < 0.005) the ingestion of Escherichia coli, but not erythrocytes and Jurkat T lymphocytes, suggesting a partially redundant phagocytic pathway for E. coli and cholesterol. Inducible expression ofa signalling-dead dominant-negative version of E. histolytica transmembrane kinase 39 inhibited ingestion of E. coli by 55 ± 3% (P < 0.005) but not LDL particles. We concluded that ingestion of E. coli was regulated by TMK39 and partially shared the acetylated low density lipoprotein cholesterol uptake pathway.     

Phosphatidylinositol-phosphates mediate cytoskeletal reorganization during phagocytosis via a unique modular protein consisting of RhoGEF/DH and FYVE domains in the parasitic protozoon Entamoeba histolytica

To understand the roles of phosphoinositides [PtdIns] in phagocytosis of parasitic eukaryotes, we examined the interaction of phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate [PtdIns(3)P] and putative PtdIns-P-binding proteins during phagocytosis in the enteric protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. It was previously shown that phagocytosis in E. histolytica is indispensable for virulence and is inhibited by PtdIns 3-kinase inhibitors. We demonstrated by time-lapse live imaging that during the initiation of phagocytosis, the PtdIns(3)P biomarker GFP–Hrs–FYVE, was translocated to the phagocytic cup, phagosome, and to tunnel-like structures connecting the plasma membrane and phagosomes. E. histolytica possesses 12 FYVE domain-containing proteins (EhFP1-12), 11 of which also contain the RhoGEF/DH domain. Among them EhFP4 was shown to be recruited to the tunnel-like structures and to the proximal region of the phagosome. We further demonstrated that EhFP4 physically interacted with 4 of 10 predominant Rho/Rac small GTPases. Phosphoinositide binding assay showed that EhFP4 unexpectedly bound to PtdIns(4)P via the carboxyl-terminal domain and that the FYVE domain modulates the binding specificity of EhFP4 to PtdIns-P. Expression of the FYVE domain from EhFP4 inhibited phagocytosis while enhancement was observed when mammalian Hrs–FYVE domain was expressed. Altogether, we demonstrated that PtdIns(3)P, PtdIns(4)P and EhFP4 coordinately regulate phagocytosis and phagosome maturation in this parasitic eukaryote.     

Molecular motors and membrane traffic in Dictyostelium

Phagocytosis and membrane traffic in general are largely dependent on the cytoskeleton and their associated molecular motors. The myosin family of motors, especially the unconventional myosins, interact with the actin cortex to facilitate the internalization of external materials during the early steps of phagocytosis. Members of the kinesin and dynein motor families, which mediate transport along microtubules (MTs), facilitate the intracellular processing of the internalized materials and the movement of membrane. Recent studies indicate that some unconventional myosins are also involved in membrane transport, and that the MT- and actin-dependent transport systems might interact with each other. Studies in Dictyostelium have led to the discovery of many motors involved in critical steps of phagocytosis and membrane transport. With the ease of genetic and biochemical approaches, the established functional analysis to test phagocytosis and vesicle transport, and the effort of the Dictyostelium cDNA and Genome Projects, Dictyostelium will continue to be a superb model system to study phagocytosis in particular and cytoskeleton and motors in general.     

Entamoeba histolytica: identification and characterization of an N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion protein homologue

Entamoeba histolytica is a phagocytic cell with numerous vesicles of different sizes and shapes but without a well-defined Golgi apparatus. Despite this, genes implied in membrane trafficking have been identified in the genome of this parasite. One of these genes is homologous to the N-ethylmaleimide sensitive fusion factor (NSF), whose protein has been shown to play an important role in vesicle fusion in other eukaryotic cells. In this report, we investigated the NSF homologue gene from a pathogenic E. histolytica, characterized its protein product and two of its activities, ATPase and in vitro intra-Golgi transport. The finding of an active NSF protein in E. histolytica indicates that a simple or primordial Golgi apparatus probably exists in this microorganism, as has been proposed by others.     

Autophosphorylation of Ser428 of EhC2PK plays a critical role in regulating erythrophagocytosis in the parasite Entamoeba histolytica

The protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica can invade both intestinal and extra intestinal tissues resulting in amoebiasis. During the process of invasion E. histolytica ingests red blood and host cells using phagocytic processes. Though phagocytosis is considered to be a key virulence determinant, the mechanism is not very well understood in E. histolytica. We have recently demonstrated that a novel C2 domain-containing protein kinase, EhC2PK is involved in the initiation of erythrophagocytosis. Because cells overexpressing the kinase-dead mutant of EhC2PK displayed a reduction in erythrophagocytosis, it appears that kinase activity is necessary for initiation. Biochemical analysis showed that EhC2PK is an unusual Mn(2+)-dependent serine kinase. It has a trans-autophosphorylated site at Ser(428) as revealed by mass spectrometric and biochemical analysis. The autophosphorylation defective mutants (S428A, KDΔC) showed a reduction in auto and substrate phosphorylation. Time kinetics of in vitro kinase activity suggested two phases, an initial short slow phase followed by a rapid phase for wild type protein, whereas mutations in the autophosphorylation sites that cause defect (S428A) or conferred phosphomimetic property (S428E) displayed no distinct phases, suggesting that autophosphorylation may be controlling kinase activity through an autocatalytic mechanism. A reduction and delay in erythrophagocytosis was observed in E. histolytica cells overexpressing S428A and KDΔC proteins. These results indicate that enrichment of EhC2PK at the site of phagocytosis enhances the rate of trans-autophosphorylation, thereby increasing kinase activity and regulating the initiation of erythrophagocytosis in E. histolytica.     

Actin and myosin in Gregarina polymorpha

Actin and two class XIV unconventional myosins have been cloned from Gregarina polymorpha, a large protozoan parasite inhabiting the gut of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor. These proteins were most similar to their homologues expressed in the coccidian and haemosporidian Apicomplexa such as Toxoplasma and Plasmodium despite the significant morphological differences among these parasites. Both actin and G. polymorpha myosin A (GpMyoA), a 92.6-kDa protein characterized by a canonical myosin head domain and short, highly basic tail, localized to both the longitudinally-disposed surface membrane folds (epicytic folds) of the parasite as well as to the subjacent rib-like myonemes that gird the parasite cortex. G. polymorpha myosin B (GpMyoB), a 96.3-kDa myosin, localized exclusively to the epicytic folds of the parasite. Both myosins were tightly associated with the cortical cytoskeleton and were solubilized only with a combination of high salt and detergent. Both GpMyoA and GpMyoB could bind to actin in an ATP-sensitive fashion. The distribution of actin and the unconventional myosins in G. polymorpha was consistent with their proposed participation in both the rapid (1-10 microm/sec) gliding motility exhibited by the gregarines as well as the myoneme-mediated bending motions that have been observed in these parasites.     

Identification and phylogenetic analysis of Drosophila melanogaster myosins

Myosins constitute a superfamily of motor proteins that convert energy from ATP hydrolysis into mechanical movement along the actin filaments. Phylogenetic analysis currently places myosins into 17 classes based on class-specific features of their conserved motor domain. Traditionally, the myosins have been divided into two classes depending on whether they form monomers or dimers. The conventional myosin of muscle and nonmuscle cells forms class II myosins. They are complex molecules of four light chains bound to two heavy chains that form bipolar filaments via interactions between their coiled-coil tails (type II). Class I myosins are smaller monomeric myosins referred to as unconventional myosins. Now, at least 15 other classes of unconventional myosins are known. How many myosins are needed to ensure the proper development and function of eukaryotic organisms? Thus far, three types of myosins were found in budding yeast, six in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and at least 12 in human. Here, we report on the identification and classification of Drosophila melanogaster myosins. Analysis of the Drosophila genome sequence identified 13 myosin genes. Phylogenetic analysis based on the sequence comparison of the myosin motor domains, as well as the presence of the class-specific domains, suggests that Drosophila myosins can be divided into nine major classes. Myosins belonging to previously described classes I, II, III, V, VI, and VII are present. Molecular and phylogenetic analysis indicates that the fruitfly genome contains at least five new myosins. Three of them fall into previously described myosin classes I, VII, and XV. Another myosin is a homolog of the mouse and human PDZ-containing myosins, forming the recently defined class XVIII myosins. PDZ domains are named after the postsynaptic density, disc-large, ZO-1 proteins in which they were first described. The fifth myosin shows a unique domain composition and a low homology to any of the existing classes. We propose that this is classified when similar myosins are identified in other species.     

Influence of tumor necrosis factor-alpha on the ability of monocytes and lymphocytes to destroy intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum in vitro

It has been shown that administration of TNF-alpha causes an increase of survival of plasmodium-infected mice. However, this anti-parasitic effect cannot be reproduced in vitro upon direct incubation of the cytokine with the parasite. This suggests that TNF-alpha may act through modulation of some plasmodicidal mechanism not yet clarified. We evaluated the effect of exogenous TNF-alpha on the phagocytosis of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes by monocytes and its influence on the ability of monocytes and lymphocytes to inhibit parasite growth. The capacity of endogenous TNF-alpha to influence the ability of monocytes to inhibit the parasite was also verified. We found that addition of 33 ng TNF-alpha/mL to cultures of human monocytes and P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes increased the phagocytic index from 3.8 to 7.8 in the presence of serum containing P. falciparum antibody. TNF-alpha increased the capacity of monocyte plus lymphocyte to inhibit parasite growth by about 3 times at 0.5 and 5 ng/mL. Sera from severely ill P. falciparum-infected individuals inhibited the parasite growth, but addition of anti-TNF-alpha antibody was unable to modify this inhibition. These data show that TNF-alpha can increase the phagocytic capacity. This was probably due to an increased expression of Fc receptors on monocytes or to the modulation of Fc receptor signaling pathways by signals originating from the binding of TNF-alpha to its receptors. TNF-alpha also acted on lymphocytes plus monocytes by increasing the inhibition of P. falciparum by a mechanism not related to phagocytosis. These findings suggest that TNF-alpha has a pleiotropic anti-malaria effect and that this protective effect depends on the interplay of different factors, such as monocytes/macrophages, lymphocytes, and antibodies, in addition to other cells and molecules.     

Calcium-binding protein 1 of Entamoeba histolytica transiently associates with phagocytic cups in a calcium-independent manner

EhCaBP1, a calcium-binding protein of the parasite Entamoeba histolytica, is known to participate in cellular processes involving actin filaments. This may be due to its direct interaction with actin. In order to understand the kinetics of EhCaBP1 in such processes, its movement was studied in living cells expressing GFP-EhCaBP1. The results showed that EhCaBP1 accumulated at phagocytic cups and pseudopods transiently. The time taken for appearance and disappearance of EhCaBP1 was found to be around 12 s. Site-directed mutagenesis was used to generate an EhCaBP1 mutant with reduced Ca(2+)- and G-actin binding ability without any defect in its ability to bind F-actin. The overexpression of this mutant EhCaBP1 in the E. histolytica trophozoites resulted in the impairment of erythrophagocytosis, uptake of bacterial cells, killing of target cells but not fluid-phase pinocytosis. However, the mutant protein was still found to transiently localize with F-actin at the phagocytic cups and pseudopods. The mutant protein displayed reduced ability to activate endogenous kinase(s) suggesting that phagosome formation may require Ca(2+)-EhCaBP1 transducing downstream signalling but initiation of phagocytosis may be independent of its intrinsic ability to bind Ca(2+). The results suggest a dynamic association of EhCaBP1 with F-actin-mediated processes.     

Rho-kinase and myosin-II control phagocytic cup formation during CR,but not FcgammaR,phagocytosis

Phagocytosis through Fcgamma receptor (FcgammaR) or complement receptor 3 (CR) requires Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerization, although each receptor uses a distinct signaling pathway. Rac and Cdc42 are required for actin and Arp2/3 complex recruitment during FcgammaR phagocytosis, while Rho controls actin assembly at CR phagosomes. To better understand the role of Rho in CR phagocytosis, we tested the idea that a known target of Rho, Rho-kinase (ROK), might control phagocytic cup formation and/or engulfment of particles. Inhibitors of ROK (dominant-negative ROK and Y-27632) and of the downstream target of ROK, myosin-II (ML7, BDM, and dominant-negative myosin-II), were used to test this idea. We found that inhibition of the Rho --> ROK --> myosin-II pathway caused a decreased accumulation of Arp2/3 complex and F-actin around bound particles, which led to a reduction in CR-mediated phagocytic engulfment. FcgammaR-mediated phagocytosis, in contrast, was independent of Rho or ROK activity and was only dependent on myosin-II for particle internalization, not for actin cup formation. While myosins have been previously implicated in FcgammaR phagocytosis, to our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of a role for myosin-II in CR phagocytosis.     

A Novel Alpha Kinase EhAK1 Phosphorylates Actin and Regulates Phagocytosis in Entamoeba histolytica

Phagocytosis plays a key role in nutrient uptake and virulence of the protist parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Phagosomes have been characterized by proteomics, and their maturation in the cells has been studied. However, there is so far not much understanding about initiation of phagocytosis and formation of phagosomes at the molecular level. Our group has been studying initiation of phagocytosis and formation of phagosomes in E. histolytica, and have described some of the molecules that play key roles in the process. Here we show the involvement of EhAK1, an alpha kinase and a SH3 domain containing protein in the pathway that leads to formation of phagosomes using red blood cell as ligand particle. A number of approaches, such as proteomics, biochemical, confocal imaging using specific antibodies or GFP tagged molecules, expression down regulation by antisense RNA, over expression of wild type and mutant proteins, were used to understand the role of EhAK1 in phagocytosis. EhAK1 was found in the phagocytic cups during the progression of cups, until closure of phagosomes, but not in the phagosomes themselves. It is recruited to the phagosomes through interaction with the calcium binding protein EhCaBP1. A reduction in phagocytosis was observed when EhAK1 was down regulated by antisense RNA, or by over expression of the kinase dead mutant. G-actin was identified as one of the major substrates of EhAK1. Phosphorylated actin preferentially accumulated at the phagocytic cups and over expression of a phosphorylation defective actin led to defects in phagocytosis. In conclusion, we describe an important component of the pathway that is initiated on attachment of red blood cells to E. histolytica cells. The main function of EhAK1 is to couple signalling events initiated after accumulation of EhC2PK to actin dynamics.     

A class VII unconventional myosin is required for phagocytosis

BACKGROUND: Phagocytosis, the process by which cells internalize particles, is essential for the defense of multicellular organisms against invading pathogens and is the major means by which many unicellular organisms obtain nutrients. The actin cytoskeleton plays a critical role in phagocytosis and the observation that a significant amount of force (10-20 nN) is generated during internalization, suggests that a myosin participates in the process. Although more than 15 distinct classes of myosin have been identified, their roles in phagocytosis are unknown. RESULTS: The identification of a class VII unconventional myosin (DdMVII) in the Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba, which is a model for phagocytosis, is reported here. Mutant cells lacking DdMVII exhibited an 80% decrease in the uptake of particles whereas all other actin-based behaviors that were tested, including pinocytosis, exocytosis, cytokinesis and morphogenesis, proceeded normally. The defect in phagocytosis was neither because of altered particle binding nor inability to form actin-filled phagocytic cups. CONCLUSIONS: Molecular genetic analysis of Dictyostelium myosin VII reveals that this motor protein plays a specific and significant role in phagocytosis.     

Pathophysiology of amoebiasis

Few organisms are more aptly named than Entamoeba histolytica, an intestinal protozoan parasite that can lyse and destroy human tissue. Within the past four years, new models of E. histolytica infection have begun to illuminate how amoebic trophozoites cause intestinal disease and liver abscess, and have expanded our understanding of the remarkable killing ability of this parasite. Here, I summarize recent work on the interactions between E. histolytica and human intestine, and between E. histolytica and hepatocytes, and discuss what these studies tell us about the role of inflammation and programmed cell death in the pathogenesis of amoebiasis.     

Structural bases of the cytolytic mechanisms of Entamoeba histolytica

The cellular bases of the powerful cytolytic activity of the human protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica were explored by studying the effect of the virulent strain HM1:IMSS on epithelial monolayers of MDCK cells using a combination of time-lapse microcinematography and transmission and scanning electron microscopy. Early alterations of the epithelial cell membranes were detected by measuring changes in the transepithelial electrical resistance of MDCK monolayers mounted in Ussing chambers. The aggressive mechanism of E. histolytica trophozoites was found to be a complex, multifactorial phenomenon that included hit-and-run damage to the plasma membrane of effector cells mediated through contact, phagocytosis of lysed or apparently intact, but detached, MDCK cells, and intracellular degradation of ingested cells. Following contact with amebas, the epithelial monolayers showed a pronounced lowering of transepithelial resistance, opening of tight junctions, distortion of microvilli, surface blebbing, and the presence of minute focal discontinuities in the plasma membrane. There was no evidence of amebic exocytosis, membrane fusion, or junction formation between the parasite and host plasma membranes. Although modifications in the epithelial cell membranes usually preceded lysis, the cytolytic activity of the parasite did not exclusively involve damage to the plasma membrane of the cultured host cells but also was mediated by avid phagocytosis, the displacement and separation of neighboring cells by means of pseudopodial activity, and the "pinching-off" of the peripheral cytoplasm of epithelial cells.     

Elevated anti-parasitic activity in peripheral blood monocytes and neutrophils of cattle infected with Babesia bovis

The innate immune response to bovine Babesia bovis infection in vivo has not previously been established. We used assays measuring phagocytosis and oxidative burst to investigate the immune response because they are indicative of the innate antimicrobial capacity of monocytes and neutrophils. Monocyte and neutrophil phagocytosis is thought to be non-specific in nature and so the phagocytosis of either opsonised Zymosan or Escherichia coli was used to indicate the non-specific phagocytic capacity of monocytes and neutrophils ex vivo. The kinetics of both phagocytic and oxidative burst activity in monocytes and neutrophils were followed twice weekly from pre-inoculation (day 0) through to 31 days after inoculation. Peripheral blood monocytes were found to display a pronounced oxidative burst, but a suppressed capacity to phagocytose during a primary infection. On the other hand, neutrophils exhibited an increased phagocytic capacity and reduced oxidative activity during a primary infection. These findings identified considerable antimicrobial activity evident in peripheral blood monocytes and neutrophils from cattle exposed to B. bovis as a primary exposure. This elevated antimicrobial activity was coincident with the time that parasite numbers peaked in the circulation and occurred prior to parasite clearance. These results suggest that peripheral blood monocytes and neutrophils are active mediators in the innate immune response to a primary B. bovis.