First identification and localization of a visual pigment in Hydra (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa)

The cnidarian Hydra does not possess identified photoreceptive structures or specialized cells for light detection; nevertheless, it shows a marked photosensitivity. So far no evidence has been previously reported about the localization of the proteins involved in the photoresponse. We used polyclonal antibodies and immunofluorescence microscopy on whole-mount Hydra to identify a putative rhodopsin-like protein. Our results show an immunoreactivity in the ectodermal layer of Hydra, which corresponds in position to the nervous epidermal sensory cells. These data provide the first identification of a rhodopsin-like protein in a phylogenetically old invertebrate and give a new insight into the Hydra photoreceptive response.     

Morphology and morphodynamics of the stenotele nematocyst of Hydra attenuata Pall. (Hydrozoa,Cnidaria)

This light- and electron-microscopic study has investigated the structure, the morphodynamics of discharge, and the impact of the stenotele cyst of Hydra attenuata (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria) on the prey's integument. The triggered capsule, which is ejected from the cell, discharges its tubular content (shaft, stylets and tubule) by a process of evagination. In doing so the three joined stylets punch a hole into the cuticle of the prey through which the long evaginating tubule penetrates into the interior of the target. The behaviour of the tubule is described in detail and the functional significances of the various parts of the capsule are discussed.     

Poly(gamma-glutamic acid)s are the major constituents of nematocysts in Hydra (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria).

The 2.80 +/- 0.20 mumol of anions found/mg of isolated and purified dry nematocysts (capsular secretory products of stinging cells) from Hydra make up the majority of the soluble capsular content. They are, in cooperation with corresponding cations, responsible for the generation and regulation of an internal osmotic pressure that amounts up to 150 bar (Weber, J. (1989) Eur. J. Biochem. 184, 465-476). The anions are organized as linear homopolymers of L-glutamic acids which are linked by gamma-carboxyl-alpha-amino amide bonds; the degree of polymerization is heterogeneous and dependent on the particular type of nematocyst. In situ the intracapsular glutamic acid monomer concentration is as high as 2 M. This is the first time that poly(gamma-glutamic acid)s, which are known to occur in some selected bacteria, are reported for eucaryotes. It is suggested that they may also be present as predominant components in nematocysts of other cnidarian species and thus might represent a class of compounds which is characteristic for a whole phylum of the animal kingdom.     

Coordinated modulation of cellular signaling through ligand-gated ion channels in Hydra vulgaris (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa)

Cnidarians lack well developed organs, but they have evolved the molecular and cellular components needed to assemble a nervous system. The apparent 'simplicity' of the cnidarian nervous net does not occur at the cellular level, but rather in the organisation of conducting systems. Cnidarian neurons are in fact electrically excitable, show the typical extended morphology and are connected by chemical synapses or gap junctions. They have been regarded as peptidergic, given the wealth of neuropeptides generally distributed along neurites and in cell bodies, supporting the hypothesis of a modulatory role in neurotransmission. However, the presence of clear-cored, as well as dense-cored synaptic vesicles in cnidarian neurons suggests both fast and slow synaptic transmission mechanisms. In fact, biochemical and functional evidence indicates that classical neurotransmitters and their metabolic partners are present in cnidarian tissues, where they are involved in coordinating motility and behavior. We have identified and characterized in Hydra tissues receptors to the inhibitory and excitatory amino acid neurotransmitters, GABA, glycine and NMDA, that are similar to mammalian ionotropic receptors in terms of their biochemical and pharmacological properties. These receptors appear to regulate pacemaker activities and their physiological correlates; in the live animal, they also affect feeding behavior, namely the duration and termination of the response elicited by reduced glutathione, with opposite actions of GABA and glycine or NMDA, respectively. These results suggest that modulation of cellular signaling through ligand-gated-ion channels is an ancient characteristic in the animal kingdom, and that the pharmacological properties of these receptors have been highly conserved during evolution.     

Development and population growth of Hydra viridissima Pallas, 1766 (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) in the laboratory

Hydras, the most representative freshwater Cnidaria, are of common occurrence in bodies of water in every continent except Antarctica. This study was planned with the aim of maintaining a population of Hydra viridissima in laboratory culture to enable the determination of the individual and population growth-rates of this species, as well as its population doubling time and generation time, with a view to employing these common animals as test-organisms in ecotoxicological assays. The organisms were maintained in reconstituted water at 20 +/- 2 degrees C, illuminated at 800 lux with a photoperiod of 12 hours light: 12 hours dark, and were fed on neonates of the cladoceran Ceriodaphnia silvestrii (3 or 4 neonates per hydra, 3 times a week). The individual growth-rate (k) of the species was 0.43, the maximum length of the column 2.53 mm and the generation time 6.6 +/- 1.5 days on average. The hydra population showed an intrinsic growth-rate (r) of 0.0468, according to the fitted curve, and a doubling time of 14.8 +/- 2.63 days. Hydra viridissima is easy to grow in the laboratory and performs well in the conditions used in this study. It is thus a promising candidate test-organism for ecotoxicological studies.     

Patterns of hydroid (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) species richness and distribution in an Arctic glaciated fjord

The consequences of global warming are particularly evident in high polar areas. Deglaciation phenomenon—negative mass balance of Svalbard glaciers and recession of tidal glaciers—results in landscape and shoreline change. These areas of very dynamic conditions are now open for primary colonists, among them hydroids, typical early colonists of the vacant substratum. This study aims to explore the patterns of Hydrozoan diversity and distribution in Hornsund (west Spitsbergen). Hydroids associated with shallow water kelp beds as well as those occurring on deeper subtidal soft bottom were collected at sites located along gradients of glacial disturbance (i.e., high mineral sedimentation, ice-berg scouring). Samples were collected by scuba diving (three sites of different distance to active tidal glaciers), van Veen grabs (two sites located in the inner and outer fjord basin), and dredges taken from along a fjord transect. Hydroid diversity differed significantly between sites located in the vicinity of glaciers fronts in glaciated bays and sites comparatively free from glacier disturbance. Glacial disturbance results in low frequencies of occurrence and high levels of rarity of hydroids at sites located close to glacier fronts. The species richness of hydroids colonizing the hard substrate elements present in deeper subtidal decreases along the fjord axis (i.e., along the glacial sedimentation gradient).     

Different roles of GABA and glycine in the modulation of chemosensory responses in Hydra vulgaris (Cnidaria,Hydrozoa)

Phylogenetic studies suggest that GABA and glycine receptors derive, as a result of divergent evolution, from a common ancestral protoreceptor originated in a unicellular organism. This raises the possibility that members of the ligand-gated ion channels (LGIC) superfamily might be widely present in living organisms including bacteria and primitive invertebrates. High-affinity GABA receptors occur in the tissues of Hydra vulgaris whose pharmacological characteristics compare with those of mammalian ionotropic GABA receptors. Behavioural studies have shown that activation of these GABA _A -like receptors by their allosteric modulators increases the duration of response to reduced glutathione (GSH). Recently, strychnine-sensitive glycine receptors have been shown to occur in Hydra tissues. Activation of these glyR also results in increased duration of the response to GSH. In order to investigate the contribution of endogenous transmitters to the modulation of the feeding response, we studied the effects of exposing the polyps to brief depolarizing pulses prior to the GSH test. A severe inhibition of the response was observed following exposure to KCl or veratridine. Administration of GABA or muscimol counteracted the effects of the pulses in a dose-dependent manner. The effects of GABA or muscimol were suppressed by the GABA _A -specific antagonist gabazine both in pulse-untreated and treated polyps. By contrast, glycine and its agonist taurine were not able to restore the physiological duration of response in pulse-treated Hydra, while another glyR agonist, β-alanine, partially reduced the pulse-induced inhibition. We conclude that GABA appears to be the major inhibitory transmitter responsible for the regulation of the feeding response. Molecular studies aimed at identifying GABA receptor subunits are in progress.     

Four new species of Hydromedusae (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) from the coast of south-western Africa

Four previously unknown species of hydromedusae are described from plankton samples collected during oceanographic cruises undertaken along the south-western coast of Africa. The Anthomedusa Bythotiara capensis sp.n., known from a single specimen, was found in shallow waters of the Cape region (South Africa). The Leptomedusa Margalefia intermedia gen. et sp.n. collected in Namibian waters, possesses desmoneme cnidocysts. This category of cnidocysts is previously unreported in the Leptomedusae, but is common in Anthomedusae and in the limnomedusan family Proboscidactylidae. Margalefia seems to occupy a position intermediate between the families Tirannidae and Laodiceidae. Two species of Limnomedusae, Aglauropsis edwardsii sp.n. and Proboscidactyla menoni sp.n. were frequent at several stations in Namibian waters between depths of 50 m and the surface.     

Transmission Genetics of Allorecognition in Hydractinia Symbiolongicarpus (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa)

Allorecognition is ubiquitous, or nearly so, amongst colonial invertebrates. Despite the prominent role that such phenomena have played both in evolutionary theory and in speculations on the origin of the vertebrate immune system, unambiguous data on the transmission genetics of fusibility (i.e., the ability of two individuals to fuse upon tissue contact) is lacking for any metazoan outside of the phylum Chordata. We have developed lines of the hydroid Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus (Phylum Cnidaria) inbred for fusibility and here report results of breeding experiments establishing that fusibility segregates as expected for a single locus with codominantly expressed alleles, with one shared allele producing a fusible phenotype. Surveys of fusibility in field populations and additional breeding experiments indicate the presence of an extensive allele series.     

Fauna of hydromedusae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) of the northwestern Sea of Japan

A brief overview of studies of hydromedusae (Cnidaria: Hydrozoa) of the northwestern Sea of Japan is provided. Based on literature data and plankton sampling by the authors, an annotated checklist of hydromedusae of the northwestern Sea of Japan was compiled for the first time. It includes 25 species belonging to 20 families and 5 orders.     

Benthic hydroids (Cnidaria,Hydrozoa) from the Balleny Islands (Antarctica)

Twenty-two species of benthic hydroids, belonging to ten families and 14 genera, were found in a hydroid collection obtained in the Balleny Islands during the BioRoss expedition with the NIWA research vessel Tangaroa in 2004. Twenty of those species constitute new records for the Balleny Islands, raising the total number of known species in the area to 25. Most are members of the subclass Leptothecata, although the subclass Anthoathecata is also relatively well represented. Kirchenpaueriidae and Sertulariidae constitute families with the greatest numbers of species in the collection, with five species (20%) each. Oswaldella with five species (20%) and Staurotheca with four (16%), were the most diverse genera. Twelve species (63%) are endemic to Antarctic waters, most of them with a circum-Antarctic distribution, and 17 (89%) are restricted to Antarctic or Antarctic/sub-Antarctic waters. Although the Balleny Islands hydroid fauna seems to be a typical Antarctic assemblage, it has some striking peculiarities, namely the absence or low representation of some typical and widespread Antarctic genera (Antarctoscyphus and Schizotricha/Symplectoscyphus, respectively).     

Vibrio harveyi Associated with Aglaophenia octodonta (Hydrozoa, Cnidaria)

A previously unknown association between a luminous bacterium, Vibrio harveyi, and a benthic hydrozoan, Aglaophenia octodonta, is described. Aglaophenia hydrocladia showed a clear fluorescence in the folds along the hydrocaulus and at the base of the hydrotheca, suggesting the presence of luminous bacteria. This hypothesis was confirmed by isolation of luminous bacteria from Aglaophenia homogenates. Phenotypic characterization of bacterial isolates was performed by several morphological, biochemical, and cultural tests, completed with 16S rDNA sequence analysis. All the isolates were referred to a single species: V. harveyi. The association between V. harveyi and A. octodonta has epidemiological as well as ecological significance. Therefore, A. octodonta may function as habitat “islands” providing a unique set of environmental conditions for luminous bacteria colonization, quite different from those already recorded from the plankton for other Vibrio species.