VARIATION IN PREFERENCE AND SPECIFICITY IN MONOPHAGOUS AND OLIGOPHAGOUS SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLIES

Although variation in oviposition preference and specificity for host plants has been demonstrated within populations of a variety of oligophagous insect species, it is unknown whether genetic variation in host choice is lost within populations of monophagous species. Analysis of a locally monophagous butterfly species, Papilio oregonius, and a locally oligophagous species, P. zelicaon, showed significant variation in oviposition preference within populations of both species. Females of both species chose primarily their native hosts. Nonetheless, the percentages of eggs laid by individual females among the plant species and the number of plant species on which individual females laid eggs differed significantly among isofemale strains within populations. Moreover, some females within all isofemale strains of both species laid a few eggs on Foeniculum vulgare, an umbelliferous species that does not occur in the native habitats of these populations but is a host for Papilio species in other geographic areas. The results suggest that local monophagy and oligophagy in these species reflect the relative ranking among potential plant species. Both populations harbor variation in oviposition choice that could allow for host shifts if these populations invaded new habitats.     

EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS OF OVIPOSITION PREFERENCE IN SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLIES

Models of the evolution of host shifts and speciation in phytophagous insects are often built upon the assumption that host selection is under simple genetic control, perhaps even a single locus. The genetic basis for differences in host-plant preference by ovipositing insects was investigated using two closely related species of swallowtail butterfly, Papilio oregonius and P. zelicaon, which differ in the plant families on which females oviposit. Both species had been shown previously to vary within populations in host selection. A combination of analyses using reciprocal interspecific crosses and isofemale strains within populations indicated that oviposition preference in these species is determined significantly by one or more loci on the X chromosome, which female Lepidoptera inherit only paternally. Hence, preferences in hybrid females tended toward the paternal species. This is the first insect group for which partial control of oviposition preference has been localized onto a particular chromosome. In addition, one or more loci on another chromosome(s) appear to contribute to preference, as indicated by the partially intermediate preferences of some hybrid crosses. The overall differences in preference in the reciprocal interspecific hybrids were restricted to differences in the distribution of eggs laid among the local host plants of these two Papilio species; the reciprocal crosses did not differ in the small percentage of eggs laid on a novel potential host species. The variation in host selection found among the isofemale strains reinforces earlier results for these strains, indicating that there is genetic variation in host selection within these populations. Overall, the results indicate that the evolution of oviposition preference in these species involves genetic changes at two or more chromosomes with the X chromosome playing an important role in determining preference.     

Oviposition on and mining in bolls of Bt and non-Bt cotton by resistant and susceptible pink bollworm (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Transgenic cotton that produces insecticidal crystal protein Cry1Ac of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been effective in controlling pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders). We compared responses to bolls of Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton by adult females and neonates from susceptible and Cry1Ac-resistant strains of pink bollworm. In choice tests on caged cotton plants in the greenhouse, neither susceptible nor resistant females laid fewer eggs on Bt cotton bolls than on non-Bt cotton bolls, indicating that the Bt toxin did not deter oviposition. Multiple regression revealed that the number of eggs laid per boll was negatively associated with boll age and positively associated with boll diameter. Females also laid more eggs per boll on plants with more bolls. The distribution of eggs among bolls of Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton was clumped, indicating that boll quality rather than avoidance of previously laid eggs was a primary factor in oviposition preference. Parallel to the results from oviposition experiments, in laboratory no-choice tests with 10 neonates per boll, the number of entrance holes per boll did not differ between Bt cotton and non-Bt cotton for susceptible and resistant neonates. Also, like females, neonates preferred younger bolls and larger bolls. Thus, acceptance of bolls by females for oviposition and by neonates for mining was affected by boll age and diameter, but not by Bt toxin in bolls. The lack of discrimination between Bt and non-Bt cotton bolls by pink bollworm from susceptible and resistant strains indicates that oviposition and mining initiation are independent of susceptibility to Cry1Ac.     

甜菜夜蛾对不同寄主植物的产卵和取食选择

为了探讨甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua对不同寄主植物的产卵选择及成虫产卵选择与幼虫取食选择间的关联度, 本研究选取玉米、豇豆、甘蓝、黄瓜、棉花、辣椒和番茄7种植物进行了选择性和非选择性实验研究, 并采用Y型嗅觉仪测定了成虫对其中3种寄主植物及其挥发物抽提物的趋性。结果表明：在田间非选择性实验中, 甜菜夜蛾在不同寄主植物上的落卵量依次为：玉米>辣椒>棉花>黄瓜、豇豆、番茄>甘蓝。Y型嗅觉仪的行为测定表明, 雌成虫对玉米及其挥发物抽提物的趋性最强, 黄瓜次之, 对甘蓝的趋性最弱, 这与雌虫的产卵选择性一致。不同龄期甜菜夜蛾幼虫对寄主植物的取食选择性有所不同, 且随观测时间的延长有所改变;低龄幼虫对豇豆、玉米和黄瓜的选择性较强, 对甘蓝、番茄、辣椒和棉花的取食选择性则较弱, 高龄幼虫对辣椒也具有较强的选择性;5龄幼虫对寄主植物的选择性不如低龄幼虫明显。结果显示, 甜菜夜蛾对不同寄主植物的产卵选择性显著不同, 植物抽提物在雌成虫的产卵选择中具有重要作用, 甜菜夜蛾对寄主植物的产卵选择性和幼虫取食选择性并不一致。     

Host plant specialization in the generalist moth Heliothis virescens and the role of egg imprinting

Even though generalist insects are able to feed on many different host plants, local specialization may occur, which could lead to genetic differentiation. In this paper we assessed the level and extent of host plant specialization in the generalist herbivore Heliothis virescens Fabricius (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). This generalist can grow and survive on many different plant species, belonging to more than 37 families. Previously, two laboratory strains were described that differ in their performance on cotton and chickpea. In this study we explored this phenomenon further. Specifically, we asked the following questions: (1) Do the two strains still differ in their performance on cotton and chickpea? Since we found that the most pronounced difference between the two strains was in their growth on fresh chickpea leaves, we then asked: (2) Does this variation in performance have a genetic basis? In our genetic analysis, we found that growth rates changed over time and that two linkage groups significantly affected the ability to grow on chickpea. One QTL was homologous to Bombyx mori chromosome 15, onto which genes for insecticide resistance and detoxicative enzymes have previously been mapped. (3) Is there a difference in oviposition preference between the two strains? Oviposition experiments revealed no preference in either strain when females were reared on the same artificial diet. However, we did find a maternal inheritance of oviposition preference: daughters collected as eggs from cotton oviposited significantly more eggs on cotton, and daughters collected as eggs from chickpea likewise laid more eggs on chickpea. Thus, Hopkins’ host selection principle seems to holds in this species, although imprinting seems to happen not at the larval but at the egg stage, which is a new finding. This study shows how genetic and nongenetic factors can interact to shape the patterns of local specialization in a generalist herbivore.     

Oviposition by Mamestra brassicae (L.) (Lep., Noctuidae) in relation to age, time of day and host plant

The age at which females begin to lay, the daily pattern of oviposition, the influence of host-plant material on egg-laying as well as the host preference of Mamestra brassicae L. (Lep., Noctuidae) were investigated under laboratory conditions. The females began to oviposit during the third, fourth and fifth scotophase after emergence. A great variability in daily female fecundity was observed. The highest level of oviposition occurred during the fifth day. Females oviposited during the whole scotophase, but maximal oviposition occurred during the second hour. The females without host-plant material laid fewer eggs than females with host-plant material (cabbage leaves Brassica oleracea var. capitata ). In two-choice tests, the females preferred to oviposit on cabbage rather than chrysanthemum, but there was no difference in the mean number of eggs laid on cabbage and tomato. There were significantly greater mean numbers of total eggs deposited on tomato than on chrysanthemum.     

Oviposition preference in the oligophagous tomato fruit fly, Neoceratitis cyanescens

We assessed the role of visual and olfactory cues on oviposition preference in the oligophagous tomato fruit fly, Neoceratitis cyanescens (Bezzi) (Diptera: Tephritidae). In a field survey, we evaluated the stage of susceptibility of field‐grown tomatoes by monitoring N. cyanescens infestations from fruit‐setting up to harvest, in relation to post‐flowering time, size, and visual properties of fruit. In two‐choice laboratory experiments, we tested the degree to which females use visual and olfactory cues to select their host plant for oviposition. In addition, we investigated the ability of flies to avoid fruit already infested by conspecific eggs or larvae, and the influence of natal host fruit on oviposition preference. Neoceratitis cyanescens females preferentially lay their eggs in small yellow‐green unripe fruit (2–3.5 cm diameter, 10–21 days post‐flowering). Damage to fruit was significantly affected by brightness and size properties. In laboratory experiments, females chose to lay their eggs in bright orange rather than yellow domes. On the sole basis of olfactory stimuli, females showed a significant preference for unripe vs. ripe host fruit, for unripe fruit vs. flowers or leaves, and for host vs. non‐host fruit (or control). However, colour interacted with odour as females dispatched their eggs equally between the yellow dome and the bright orange dome when unripe fruit of tomato was placed under the yellow dome vs. ripe fruit under the bright orange dome. When offered real ripe and unripe tomatoes, females preferred unripe tomatoes. Females significantly chose to lay eggs in non‐infested fruit when they were given the choice between these or fruit infested with larvae. In contrast, recent stings containing eggs did not deter females from laying eggs. Rather, they could have an attractive effect when deposited within <1 h. Regardless of their natal host plant, tomato or bugweed, N. cyanescens females laid significantly more eggs in a dome containing bugweed fruit. However, 15% of females originating from tomato laid eggs exclusively in the dome with tomato, against 3% of females originating from bugweed.     

The Oviposition Behavior of the Predator Orius insidiosus: Acceptability and Preference for Different Plants

The ability of natural enemies to reproduce within cropland and effectively suppress pests depends on the presence of plants on which to oviposit within the agroecosystems. Our research investigates the acceptability and preferences of a range of plants for oviposition by the predatory bug Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) in the laboratory. Within-plant preferences on pole beans as oviposition sites were evaluated in laboratory choice tests. The acceptability and preference of O. insidiosus females for pole bean, soybean, redroot pigweed, and velvetleaf were evaluated in choice and no-choice tests (respectively) in the laboratory. Observations on the acceptability of green foxtail, orchardgrass, buffalograss, smooth brome, redtop grass, blue grama, and tall fescue for oviposition were also conducted. O. insidiosus preferred to lay its eggs on the petiole and leaflet petioles of pole beans, and did not distinguish among nodes or petioles of different lengths. Although all broadleaved plants were suitable for egg development, the acceptability of these plants differed significantly, with pole beans being most acceptable and almost no eggs being laid on velvetleaf. Preference tests supported the results of the no-choice tests, with pole bean being the most preferred, and no eggs being laid on the velvetleaf. Green foxtail and orchardgrass were the only grass species found to be acceptable to O. insidiosus. The implications of soybean monocultures on the reproductive capacity of and biological control by O. insidiosus are discussed, as are possible mechanisms underlying the decision-making process for oviposition.     

THE GENETIC BASIS OF DIFFERENCES IN GROWTH AND BEHAVIOR OF SPECIALIST AND GENERALIST HERBIVORE SPECIES: SELECTION ON HYBRIDS OF HELIOTHIS VIRESCENS AND HELIOTHIS SUBFLEXA (LEPIDOPTERA)

Two species of moths and their hybrids were studied to determine the genetic basis of host range. One species, Heliothis virescens (HV), has a broad host range and is an agricultural pest on cotton (Malvaceae), soybean (Fabaceae), and tobacco (Solanaceae). The other species, Heliothis subflexa (HS), has a narrow host range, feeding on plants in the genus Physalis (Solanaceae). Experiments were done to determine whether the abilities to feed on cotton, soybean, and tobacco were each under separate genetic control in HV (genetically uncorrelated) or whether feeding on all three hosts was genetically correlated. By repeatedly backcrossing hybrids to HS while selecting for high larval survival and weight on soybean, loci conferring the ability to feed on soybean were moved from HV into the genetic background of the specialist, HS. After six generations of selection on soybean we tested the selected line on soybean, cotton, Physalis, and tobacco to determine if ability to feed on soybean was correlated with feeding ability on these other hosts. We found no evidence to support the hypothesis that feeding on all three hosts was correlated and controlled by a single locus. Compared to HS, the survival and weight of the selected line were significantly higher on soybean, similar on tobacco and Physalis, and slightly, but not significantly, higher on cotton. We also conducted a behavioral choice test to determine if larval preference for soybean was correlated with preference for other hosts. The selected line larvae had higher preference for soybean and cotton than HS. Preference for tobacco was equal in the selected line and in HS. These results support the trends seen in survival and growth tests where performances on soybean and cotton appeared partially correlated and performances on soybean and tobacco were uncorrelated. In conclusion, the generalist, HV, did not have a single set of loci that governed feeding on soybean, cotton and tobacco. It is likely that some of the loci governing performance and preference for soybean also contributed to performance and preference for cotton and that the soybean loci examined did not interact negatively to lower performance and preference for Physalis, the specialist's host. This approach can be applied more widely to address evolutionary questions about host range and other ecological traits.     

Host preferences of the cocoa pod borer,Conopomorpha cramerella,the main threat to cocoa production in Southeast Asia

Insects ensure the survival of their offspring by depositing their eggs in suitable environments. Even generalist egg-laying insects often show preferences for specific host plants. The cocoa pod borer (CPB), Conopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), successfully infests and reproduces on relatively few host plants, but has a major economic impact only on cocoa, Theobroma cacao L. (Malvaceae). Choice tests were performed in the laboratory to compare the frequency of insect visits, the duration of the visits, and the number of eggs laid on the fruits for each combination of host plants tested – that is, cocoa clones or fruits of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.), Fijian longan (Pometia pinnata JR Forst & G Forst, both Sapindaceae), and langsat (Lansium domesticum Corrêa, Malvaceae). Our laboratory study showed that, when given the choice, CPB significantly favored cocoa pods over other host fruits (rambutan, langsat, or Fijian longan). Females also deposited more eggs on unripe fruits than on ripe fruits of similar size. The preference to lay eggs on specific cocoa clones in the bioassays did not reflect the level of the clone resistance to CPB damage reported from the field. Consequently, oviposition preference of female CPB does not seem to be the main factor explaining field resistance of some cocoa clones to CPB infestation.     

Host plant, temperature, and photoperiod effects on ovipositional preference of Frankliniella occidentalis and Frankliniella fusca (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Host plant effects of tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Mill., and chickweed, Stellaria media (L.) Vill., foliage infected and uninfected with Tomato spotted wilt virus (family Bunyaviridae, genus Tospovirus, TSWV) on the ovipositional preferences of western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), and tobacco thrips, Frankliniella fusca (Hinds), were investigated for whole plants in the greenhouse. In addition, the preference for leaf disks from the same host plants was investigated under a range of temperatures, 15-30 degrees C at a photoperiod of 12:12 (L:D) h, and at three photoperiods, 6:18, 12:12, and 18:6, at 20 degrees C in no-choice and choice studies conducted in growth chambers. In a choice test, F. fusca oviposited significantly more eggs per whole plant foliage over a 7-d period than F. occidentalis by an average ratio of 3:1 over both tomato and chickweed. The optimum temperature for oviposition of F. occidentalis and F. fusca was 24.5 and 24.9 degrees C, respectively. Both species laid significantly more eggs under the longest daylight hours tested, 18:6, in the choice study. Temperature and photoperiod did not significantly interact in terms of thrips ovipositional preference. Ovipositional preference for chickweed or tomato foliage was different for each thrips species in the choice and no-choice tests. However, both thrips species laid significantly more eggs per square centimeter of leaf area in chickweed than in tomato in the whole plant choice test.     

桔小实蝇和番石榴实蝇对6种寄主果实的产卵选择适应性

植食性昆虫对寄主植物的选择适应性是研究昆虫和植物协同进化关系的核心内容之一。评估寄主植物对植食性昆虫种群的适合度,需要综合分析昆虫对寄主的产卵选择性和寄主对昆虫的取食适合性。以桔小实蝇和番石榴实蝇为研究对象,分别测定了这两种实蝇对6种寄主果实:番石榴、香蕉、杨桃、木瓜、甜橙、番茄的产卵选择性以及幼虫取食后对其生长发育的影响。寄主产卵选择性实验分别采用完整寄主果实直接供试产卵和块状寄主果实气味引诱产卵两种处理方式;在生长发育适应性实验中,以幼虫和蛹的存活和生长发育等相关参数作为评价指标。实验结果表明,寄主的供试方式不同,两种实蝇的选择性均有明显差异;对寄主气味选择性强的寄主更适合于两种实蝇后代的生长发育。两种实蝇对6种寄主果实的产卵选择性和后代发育适合性两者相关性不显著,与许多文献报道单一地采用发育适合性(如发育历期、存活率或蛹重等)作为评价寄主选择性的结果不一致。两种实蝇之间对6种寄主果实的产卵选择和幼虫取食适合性既具相似性也具差异性,表明这两种实蝇在寄主生态位上既有重叠性又有分化性。     

寄主挥发物、叶色在B型烟粉虱寄主选择中的作用

在室温条件下,研究B型烟粉虱Bemisia tabaci(Gennadius)对不同寄主植物和颜色的行为趋性。笼罩实验的结果显示,烟粉虱雌虫对共存的5种寄主植物偏好存在显著差异,总体上表现为对番茄的趋性最强(35·0%),甘蓝次之(27·7%),烟草和棉花再次之,辣椒最低(7·1%);且随着时间的延长,烟粉虱数量在番茄上逐渐增加,在甘蓝上呈下降趋势,在烟草、棉花和辣椒上变动幅度不大,但数量总体上仍是番茄(48·8%)>甘蓝(18·4%)>烟草、棉花>辣椒(3·4%)。但烟粉虱在不同寄主植物上的产卵量则表现为:甘蓝>番茄>棉花、烟草>辣椒;其中甘蓝和番茄上卵量分别占总卵量的56·8%和28·2%;而烟草、棉花和辣椒上的卵量均不到总卵量的6·0%。"Y"型嗅觉仪进一步测定表明:寄主植物番茄和甘蓝气味对烟粉虱具有显著引诱作用,且表现为番茄>甘蓝,辣椒不具引诱作用;烟粉虱对3种植物(番茄、甘蓝、辣椒)的叶片颜色均有显著趋性,选择率在75%左右,但在三者之间的趋性差异不明显;烟粉虱雌虫对黄色和绿色均具有显著趋性,且对黄色的趋性显著大于对绿色的趋性,但对红色无趋性。综合分析表明,在对寄主定向和定位过程中,B型烟粉虱的视觉和嗅觉均起作用,但在对同种颜色(绿色)的寄主进行选择和定位的过程中,嗅觉起主要作用,而对不同种颜色(红、黄、绿)的选择和定位时,其视觉起决定作用。     

Nymphal and adult performance of Apolygus lucorum (Hemiptera: Miridae) on a preferred host plant, mungbean Vigna radiata

Mungbean, Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek, a preferred host plant of Apolygus lucorum (Meyer-Dür) (Hemiptera: Miridae), is used in China as a trap crop for this pest in cotton fields. Little is known, though, about the relationship between adult oviposition preference and offspring performance of A. lucorum on mungbean. In this study, we compared the oviposition preference of A. lucorum on mungbean versus cotton plants in both open-field plots and field cages. Field-plot experiments demonstrated that the population density of first instar nymphs of A. lucorum and the ratio of first instar nymphs to adults were significantly higher on mungbean than on cotton. Choice and no-choice cage experiments revealed that the number of eggs laid on mungbean was significantly higher than on cotton. We also compared adult longevity and fecundity, as well as offspring survival and development on these two host plants. We found that A. lucorum adult females survived longer and laid more eggs on mungbean than on cotton (P?<?0.05). Mungbean also promoted higher rates of development than did cotton (P?<?0.05), but did not affect nymphal survival (P?>?0.05). In summary, the preference of A. lucorum adults for mungbean is consistent with both adult and nymphal performance. This study furthers the understanding of the relationship between the polyphagous species A. lucorum and its host plants, which will help improve trap-cropping strategies for the control of A. lucorum that are based on the use of mungbean.     

Comparison of Host-Searching and Ovipositional Behavior of Cardiochiles nigriceps Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a Parasitoid of Heliothis virescens (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), in Tobacco and Cotton

To compare host-searching and ovipositional behavior of Cardiochiles nigriceps Viereck (CN) in tobacco and cotton, behavior of CN females was observed on Hellothis virescens (Febricius)-infested plants and recorded using a Psion Organizer II with Observer software. Hover, search, oviposit, preen, rest, walk, agony-search, drop-search, and miss-search were the nine behaviors observed for each plant species. Agony-search was a searching behavior exhibited when CN females were prevented from ovipositing in a host because they were unable to reach the host. Drop-search and miss-search were the searching behaviors that occurred by CN females after a host dropped from the plant and when CN females missed ovipositing in a host, respectively. Hovering, searching, oviposition, miss-search, resting, and walking were equally common for CN on tobacco and cotton. Agony-search was exhibited more on tobacco than cotton, while drop-search and preening occurred more on cotton than tobacco. Female CN spent more time hovering in tobacco than in cotton, indicating that these females preferred tobacco to cotton. Female parasitoids also spent more time in the main ovipositional sequence, hover–search–oviposit, in tobacco than in cotton, mainly because females hovered more in tobacco than in cotton. Frequency and time of behavioral sequences associated with experiencing frustration in ovipositing due to difficulty in reaching or finding a host and subsequent level of success in ovipositing in a new host were determined. Overall, the rate of successful oviposition by CN females was significantly higher in tobacco (87.7%) than in cotton (79.5%). For cotton and tobacco, the rate of successful oviposition by CN females was significantly reduced (ca. 40.0%) when they experienced frustration in ovipositing compared to the rate of ovipositional success (100%) for CN females when hosts were present and easily accessible. Encountering ovipositional frustration also increased the duration of time for successful oviposition in comparison to the time spent for problem-free oviposition in cotton and tobacco. Interestingly, with successful oviposition, the amount of time spent in a behavioral sequence was not significantly different for tobacco and cotton regardless of whether females experienced ovipositional frustration or not. However, female CN invested more time in tobacco than in cotton when they were unsuccessful in ovipositing due to the inaccessibility or disappearance of hosts. CN females' preference for tobacco over cotton probably gave them more motivation to continue searching for hosts, especially those not easily attained, on tobacco than on cotton. Nevertheless, CN females readily searched in cotton for HV even in the presence of host-infested tabacco. CN females possibly could be successful in maintaining levels of HV below an economic threshold when using a tobacco trap crop to protect cotton as the main crop.     

In vitro rearing of the parasitoid Exorista larvarum (Diptera: Tachinidae) from eggs laid out of host

We evaluated the possibility of using the eggs laid out of host to rear Exorista larvarum (L.) (Diptera: Tachinidae), a larval parasitoid of Lepidoptera, on artificial media. In a first experiment, eggs oviposited on a plastic sheet (either by inexperienced or experienced females) showed the same in vitro hatching capability as those removed from the larvae of the factitious host Galleria mellonella L. Subsequently, eggs laid on the host integument or out of host, either by inexperienced or experienced females, were removed from the oviposition substrate and placed on a skimmed milkbased artificial medium. The percentages of hatched eggs, of puparia and adults, as well as the puparial weights did not differ significantly among the three treatments. These findings suggested that E. larvarum may be successfully reared in vitro with a total exclusion of the host insect. In a further test, no difference for the in vitro hatching time was found between the eggs oviposited either on a plastic sheet or on G. mellonella larvae in the same length of time (60 min). This result suggested that at oviposition the out-of-host eggs were unincubated, similarly to those that had been laid on the host larvae.     

颜色对苹果蠹蛾产卵选择性的影响

苹果蠹蛾Cydia pomonella Linne是为害苹果Malus pumila Mill.、梨Pyrus spp.、桃Amygdalus persica L.等仁果类和核果类果树的重要蛀果害虫之一.为明确寄主颜色在苹果蠹蛾产卵中的作用,本文研究了不同颜色对苹果蠹蛾雌成虫产卵选择性的影响.试验采用彩色硫酸纸模拟寄主...     

Effects of pre-adult and adult experience on host acceptance in choice and non-choice tests in two strains ofTrichogramma

The effect of adult learning through an oviposition experience, and pre-adult learning through development inside a host was investigated in two strains of an Australian egg parasitoid,Trichogramma nrivelae (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae). Host response was measured in two types of laboratory preference tests. In single host tests, females reared on three lepidopteran hosts (Heliothis punctigera (Noctuidae),Papilio aegeus (Papilionidae), andHypolimnas bolina (Nymphalinae)) were presented host eggs individually, and allowed two ovipositions. Pre-adult experience affected host preference in only one strain, while acceptance of a host was increased in both strains when they had previously oviposited in this host species. An oviposition experience had a stronger effect on host preference than pre-adult experience. In choice tests, pairwise combinations of hosts were arranged in an alternating grid. The ratio of host acceptances to host contacts was computed for the whole test and up to the first oviposition. These indicated that effects of rearing host were weak or absent, but the host chosen initially had a strong effect on host preference. Relative size of the hosts had a strong effect on choice of the first host. The implications of learning inTrichogramma are discussed in relation to host preference testing procedures and the selection of candidate strains for mass rearing and inundative release.     

Does host plant quality affect the oviposition decisions of an omnivore?

Optimal oviposition theory predicts a positive relationship between female preference for oviposition hosts and offspring performance. Interspecies effects on oviposition preference have been widely investigated, especially for herbivores. However, intraspecies variation, such as nitrogen content, might also influence female preference for oviposition hosts and subsequent offspring performance. To evaluate this possibility, we investigated the oviposition preference of a zoophytophagous omnivore and the development and survival of its nymphs on a single species of host plant that varied in nitrogen content. In choice and no‐choice experiments without prey, female omnivores were allowed to oviposit on plants that had been fertilized using 4 rates of nitrogen fertilizer (39, 78, 156, and 311 mg/L nitrogen) for 72 h. After 72 h, the most females were found on tomato plants receiving high concentrations of nitrogen fertilizer and more eggs were laid on those plants. First instar nymphs developed more rapidly on high‐nitrogen plants and third instar nymphs developed faster on low‐nitrogen plants. Plant nitrogen did not affect nymph survival to the adult stage, or the probability of survival over time. Although female omnivores did discriminate between potential oviposition hosts based on plant nitrogen, their choices did not significantly impact nymph development or survival. This is the first study to show that intraspecies variation in nitrogen content between plants affects the oviposition preference of female omnivores, but not offspring performance.     

Oviposition of resistant and susceptible strains of Drosophila melanogaster in the presence of deltamethrin

Oviposition of three strains of Drosophila melanogaster in the presence of deltamethrin was observed. These strains had different levels of physiological susceptibility to deltamethrin. Two-choice tests were conducted with couples of flies in petri-dish arenas containing two oviposition dishes. On the first day of the experiment, females were given a choice between a treated oviposition dish and an untreated control dish. On the second day of the experiment, two control oviposition dishes were given to females. Although individual females showed a tendency to aggregate their eggs in one of the dishes, control experiments demonstrated an overall equal distribution of eggs between the dishes. When one of the two oviposition dishes in the arena was treated with deltamethrin, the percentage of females ovipositing and the mean number of eggs laid by females were reduced, compared with control arenas. Females avoided the treated oviposition dish and laid significantly more eggs on the control dish. Furthermore, when the deltamethrin concentration was increased on the first day, female flies postponed their oviposition and laid significantly more eggs on the second day. The resistant strain, SR, demonstrated the same capacity to select the untreated site for oviposition as the susceptible strain, but it showed a smaller oviposition reduction and egg retention. The relationship between physiological and behavioural susceptibility to deltamethrin is discussed.