Population size,structure and phenology of an endangered salamander at temporary and permanent breeding sites

The fire salamander, Salamandra infraimmaculata, is listed as an endangered species in Israel and Israeli populations represent the genus’ worldwide southern-most limit. This endangered classification was based largely on limited mark-recapture data and on using the Lincoln index whose assumptions of equal catchability, time homogeneity and a closed population are unlikely kept for salamander populations. We estimated population size at five breeding sites in northern Israel – two permanent and three temporary breeding sites – for up to three years using a non-parametric procedure that allows the probabilities of recapture to vary both with time and with individual animal. We also compared breeding phenology and population size structure at these same sites. Population estimates at some breeding sites were larger than previously thought. Adult population size was not correlated with the size of the water body, but instead, sites with permanent water bodies had significantly larger populations. First arrival date to the breeding site of individuals on consecutive years was positively correlated at all sites suggesting that some individuals breed consistently early while others breed consistently late. Activity abundance was correlated with daily rainfall at a permanent site but not at an adjacent temporary site. Instead, activity abundance at the temporary breeding site was synchronised with pool inundation, which did not occur during the first rains. Males remained longer than females at all breeding sites. This study provides clear management implications both in terms of determining the vulnerability of specific populations, and in suggesting that permanent breeding sites are much more likely to support larger populations.     

Clonal diversity and structure of the invasive aquatic plant Eichhornia crassipes in China

The information on diversity and spatial distribution of clones of an invasive clonal plant is crucial for the understanding of its clonal structure and invasive history. In this paper, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were used to explore the clonal diversity and clonal structure of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms in natural populations, and their possible effects on the plant success as an invader are also discussed. Five populations covering the entire distribution area in China were studied, sampling 43 individuals per population at an interval of 1 m in a sampling plot. Twelve RAPD primers produced 69 reproducible bands, with 22 being polymorphic. Only five RAPD phenotypes (clones) were detected in these five populations, but each population consisted of at least three clones, contrary to the traditional expectations that E. crassipes populations should be monoclonal. The diversity of clones within populations is thought to be mainly resulted from multiple introductions by humans. The evenness of distribution of clones varied slightly and most clones were widespread, suggesting clonal growth is the predominant mode of regeneration in all the populations. A single clone dominated each population and this clone might be the first one introduced into China or the genotype with a higher phenotypic plasticity, which could survive and reproduce via clonal growth in various habitats. The clones in each population were highly intermixed, especially in river populations, suggesting this species has a guerilla clonal structure which can be facilitated by water current.     

Interplay between ecological, behavioural and historical factors in shaping the genetic structure of sympatric walleye populations (Sander vitreus)

Disentangling ecological, behavioural and evolutionary factors responsible for the presence of stable population structure within wild populations has long been challenging to population geneticists. This study primarily aimed at decoding population structure of wild walleye (Sander vitreus) populations of Mistassini Lake (Québec, Canada) in order to define source populations to be used for the study of spatial partitioning using individual-based multilocus assignment methods, and decipher the dynamics of individual dispersal and resulting patterns of spatial resource partitioning and connectivity among populations. A second objective was to elucidate the relationships between biological characteristics (sex, size, age and population of origin) and an individual's probability to migrate and/or disperse. To do so, a total of 780 spawning individuals caught on five distinct spawning sites, and 1165 postspawning individuals, captured over two sampling seasons (2002-2003) were analysed by means of eight microsatellite loci. Four temporally stable walleye populations associated with distinct reproductive grounds were detected. These populations were differentially distributed among lake sectors during their feeding migration and their spatial distribution was stable over the two sampling seasons. Dispersing individuals were identified (n=61); these revealed asymmetrical patterns of dispersal between populations, which was also confirmed by divergent admixture proportions. Regression models underlined population of origin as the only factor explaining differential dispersal of individuals among populations. An analysis of covariance (ancova) indicated that larger individuals tended to migrate from their river of origin further away in the lake relative to smaller fish. In summary, this study underlined the relevance of using individual-based assignment methods for deciphering dynamics of connectivity among wild populations, especially regarding behavioural mechanisms such as differential spatial partitioning and dispersal responsible for the maintenance of genetic population structure.     

Empirical and virtual investigation of the population dynamics of an alien plant under the constraints of local carrying capacity: Heracleum mantegazzianum in the Czech Republic

During the last decades, invasive alien species have become a global concern because of their ecological and economic impact. Heracleum mantegazzianum (Apiaceae), is a tall monocarpic perennial native to Caucasus and invasive in Europe since the 1950s. Within an interdisciplinary EU project aimed at assessing suitable management strategy, we analysed the demography and ecology of this species in its invasive range. The monitoring of population dynamics in the Czech Republic led to the result that in the observed sites the species showed decreasing populations. To find an explanation for this unexpected result, two types of models were parameterized, based on the empirical data: (1) a stage-based transition matrix model, which projected a continuous negative development, and (2) a spatially explicit individual-based model (IBM), including individual variation. This second model was able to create a population with steady individual numbers. Analyses of the simulation showed that in more than 54% of the simulated years (n=5000) the growth rate was smaller than one. Still, population increase in the remaining years was sufficient to sustain a population. Nevertheless long-term observations document an invasive behaviour of the observed populations. Hence, we could assume temporal changes in the course of an invasion and thus wanted to evaluate the probability of sampling negative growth in dependence of time since first invasion. By using a method from ‘Virtual Ecology’, we approached the question: first we create an invasive population, based on the empirical data of H. mantegazzianum and second empirical sampling techniques were mimicked using the Virtual Ecologist approach. The results demonstrate how the probability of sampling negative growth increases with time since first invasion. Hence, we assume that the studied populations have already reached a maximum of their local invasive potential and thus stagnate in their size.     

Population structure and landscape genetics in the endangered subterranean rodent Ctenomys porteousi

In order to devise adequate conservation and management strategies for endangered species, it is important to incorporate a reliable understanding of its spatial population structure, detecting the existence of demographic partitions throughout its geographical range and characterizing the distribution of its genetic diversity. Moreover, in species that occupy fragmented habitats it is essential to know how landscape characteristics may affect the genetic connectivity among populations. In this study we use eight microsatellite markers to analyze population structure and gene flow patterns in the complete geographic range of the endangered rodent Ctenomys porteousi. Also, we use landscape genetics approaches to evaluate the effects of landscape configuration on the genetic connectivity among populations. In spite of geographical proximity of the sampling sites (8–27 km between the nearest sites) and the absence of marked barriers to individual movement, strong population structure and low values of gene flow were observed. Genetic differentiation among sampling sites was consistent with a simple model of isolation by distance, where peripheral areas showed higher population differentiation than those sites located in the central area of the species’ distribution. Landscape genetics analysis suggested that habitat fragmentation at regional level has affected the distribution of genetic variation among populations. The distance of sampling sites to areas of the landscape having higher habitat connectivity was the environmental factor most strongly related to population genetic structure. In general, our results indicate strong genetic structure in C. porteousi, even at a small spatial scale, and suggest that habitat fragmentation could increase the population differentiation.     

Life-History and Spatial Determinants of Somatic Growth Dynamics in Komodo Dragon Populations

Somatic growth patterns represent a major component of organismal fitness and may vary among sexes and populations due to genetic and environmental processes leading to profound differences in life-history and demography. This study considered the ontogenic, sex-specific and spatial dynamics of somatic growth patterns in ten populations of the world’s largest lizard the Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis). The growth of 400 individual Komodo dragons was measured in a capture-mark-recapture study at ten sites on four islands in eastern Indonesia, from 2002 to 2010. Generalized Additive Mixed Models (GAMMs) and information-theoretic methods were used to examine how growth rates varied with size, age and sex, and across and within islands in relation to site-specific prey availability, lizard population density and inbreeding coefficients. Growth trajectories differed significantly with size and between sexes, indicating different energy allocation tactics and overall costs associated with reproduction. This leads to disparities in maximum body sizes and longevity. Spatial variation in growth was strongly supported by a curvilinear density-dependent growth model with highest growth rates occurring at intermediate population densities. Sex-specific trade-offs in growth underpin key differences in Komodo dragon life-history including evidence for high costs of reproduction in females. Further, inverse density-dependent growth may have profound effects on individual and population level processes that influence the demography of this species.     

Fluctuation and synchronization of adults catches of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Liviidae) in urban backyards and commercial citrus plantations

Studies to determine the population fluctuation of Diaphorina citri, vector of Candidatus Liberibacter sp., have been carried out mainly in commercial plantations, whereas less have focused in urban areas and their synchrony. The objectives of this work were to monitor D. citri adult populations in Murraya paniculata (OJ) in urban areas and in Persian lime (LM) orchards, to estimate the effect of some environmental factors and to evaluate the synchronization between these populations. Sampling was performed from September 2012 to August 2014 in Veracruz, México. Five urban areas and five commercial Persian lime plots close to each other were selected. Adult D. citri catches were made monthly with yellow traps. Vegetative shoots, temperature and relative humidity were measured throughout the sampling period. Adults of Diaphorina citri were captured in all the sampling sites throughout the two-years sampling period and the populations were more abundant in summer. Significant factors affecting trap catches were the presence of new shoots and temperature. Temperature and relative humidity enclosed a comfort zone between 26 and 28?°C and 75 to 85% respectively. Cross-correlation values were positive across hosts within the same locations and between locations, regardless of the distance, thus suggesting a spatial synchronization in trap catches. This spatial relationship represents a risk of infestation between host species because of the potential movement and dispersal.     

鼎湖山旅游路径对针阔混交林个体数量和生物量空间分布格局的影响

以与旅游路径相邻的鼎湖山针阔混交林样地为研究对象,应用垂直路径和平行路径两种样带取样方法,探讨旅游路径影响下不同取样尺度群落个体数量和生物量的空间分布格局,以及不同优势种群空间分布格局对旅游路径干扰的响应.结果表明,群落生物量在各取样尺度上均未检测到显著变化(P>0.05),群落个体数在远离旅游路径方向各取样尺度上均呈显著的增加趋势(P<0.05).优势物种20 m取样尺度的空间分布格局反映了不同种群对旅游路径干扰的不同响应,其中荷木的生物量、豺皮樟的个体数和生物量在远离旅游路径方向上均呈显著增长趋势,其他物种的个体数和生物量变化不显著.     

Linking vital rates to invasiveness of a perennial herb

Invaders generally show better individual performance than non-invaders and, therefore, vital rates (survival, growth, fecundity) could potentially be used to predict species invasiveness outside their native range. Comparative studies have usually correlated vital rates with the invasiveness status of species, while few studies have investigated them in relation to population growth rate. Here, I examined the influence of five vital rates (plant establishment, survival, growth, flowering probability, seed production) and their variability (across geographic regions, habitat types, population sizes and population densities) on population growth rate (λ) using data from 37 populations of an invasive, iteroparous herb (Lupinus polyphyllus) in a part of its invaded range in Finland. Variation in vital rates was often related to habitat type and population density. The performance of the populations varied from declining to rapidly increasing independently of habitat type, population size or population density, but differed between regions. The population growth rate increased linearly with plant establishment, and with the survival and growth of vegetative individuals, while the survival of flowering individuals and annual seed production were not related to λ. The vital rates responsible for rapid population growth varied among populations. These findings highlight the importance of both regional and local conditions to plant population dynamics, demonstrating that individual vital rates do not necessarily correlate with λ. Therefore, to understand the role of individual vital rates in a species ability to invade, it is necessary to quantify their effect on population growth rate.     

Conservation approach to the demography and dynamics of protected and unprotected populations of the endemic Ebenus armitagei in the Western Mediterranean Coast of Egypt

Ebenus armitagei Schweinf. & Taubert is a rare and endangered species inhabiting calcareous sea-shore rocky sites in the North Western Mediterranean coastal belt of Egypt. The population demography and dynamics of the only three populations remaining were compared with reference to their level of protection: (1) a protected population inside a biosphere reserve (Omayed); (2) a population inside a coastal guard station (Hekma, protected); and (3) an unprotected population (Hekma). Cuttings taken from plants at the study sites were used to test whether vegetative propagation represents a possible management tool to enhance species recovery.Life table statistics indicated that although protection may ameliorate the status of the species, the three study populations are in drastic decline, having intrinsic rates of population growth (r) of ?0.075, ?0.119 and ?0.143 and reproductive rates (R_o) of 0.179, 0.094 and 0.047 for the Omayed (protected) and Hekma protected and unprotected sites, respectively. The fruits-seeds and the germinable-seeds-juveniles were the most critical transitions in the E. armitagei life cycle, having the highest killing power values. Furthermore, differential seed production and seed predation among the three populations may be caused by the pattern of plant phenology in the study sites.Significant losses of seeds due to insect predation (56.6-94.8%), together with a low percentage of seedling emergence (23.5-26.2%) and low reproductive value of the populations were obstacles for natural regeneration and conservation of the species even at the protected sites. Despite the low success of vegetative propagation (43-54%), the establishment of new populations and the adoption of such a regeneration strategy seem to be necessary for the recovery of the species.     

Highly Connected Populations and Temporal Stability in Allelic Frequencies of a Harvested Crab from the Southern Pacific Coast

For marine invertebrates with a benthic adult form and a planktonic larva phase, the connectivity among populations is mainly based on larval dispersal. While an extended larval phase will promote gene flow, other factors such as an intensive fishery and geographical barriers could lead to changes in genetic variability. In this study, the population genetic structure of the commercial crab Metacarcinus edwardsii was analyzed along 700 km of the Chilean coast. The analysis, based on eight microsatellite loci genotyped from megalopae and adult crabs, considered temporal and spatial patterns of genetic variation. The results showed no evidence of spatial patterns in genetic structure, suggesting high connectivity among the sampling sites. The temporal analysis showed no evidence of changes in allele frequencies and no evidence of a recent bottleneck. The lack of spatial structure and allele variation over time could be explained by the interaction of factors such as i) low reproductive variance due to the capability of females to store sperm in the seminal receptacle, which can be used for successive broods, ii) high larval dispersal and iii) high individual reproductive output. Using our data as priors, a genetic modelling approach coincided, predicting this temporal and spatial stability. The same analysis showed that a reduction in population size leads to the loss of genetic variability in populations, as well as of the genetic cohesiveness between populations, pointing out the importance management for species under exploitation, such as M. edwardsii.     

Assessing riverscape-scale variation in fish life history using banded sculpin (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cottus carolinae</Emphasis>)

Advancing the field of fish ecology requires a shift in focus from describing patterns in species occurrences to understanding the mechanisms that regulate distributions and abundances across broad scales. For stream fish ecology, this includes understanding environmental mechanisms that regulate stream fish demographic properties at the scale of stream networks or riverscapes. Despite the fact that Banded Sculpin Cottus carolinae occupy a diversity of habitats and stream sizes across the southeastern United States, relatively little is known about the demography of this species. We assessed annual demographic properties (reproduction, growth, and survival) of C. carolinae collected monthly from four sites distributed longitudinally along the Roaring River riverscape in Tennessee to simultaneously describe life history attributes of the species and address riverscape-scale variation in population dynamics. Cottus carolinae lived for a maximum of four years, local populations were dominated by age-0 and age-1 individuals, reproduction began after one year, spawning occurred during December and January, and mean ova number was 398. A life history tradeoff between growth (robustness) and survival was evident at one site where water temperature and flow were least variable, otherwise life history attributes were consistent across the riverscape despite longitudinal changes in abiotic variables. Our work illustrates the potential for muted population responses to a strong hydrologic gradient in stream size and highlights the stability inherent with fish life history adaptations to natural environmental regimes across broad spatial scales.     

Investigating the effects of topography and clonality on genetic structuring within a large Norwegian population of Arabidopsis lyrata

Background and Aims

The gene flow through pollen or seeds governs the extent of spatial genetic structure in plant populations. Another factor that can contribute to this pattern is clonal growth. The perennial species Arabidopsis lyrata ssp. petraea (Brassicaceae) is a self-incompatible, clonal species found in disjunctive populations in central and northern Europe.

Methods

Fourteen microsatellite markers were employed to study the level of kinship and clonality in a high-altitude mountain valley at Spiterstulen, Norway. The population has a continuous distribution along the banks of the River Visa for about 1·5 km. A total of 17 (10 m × 10 m) squares were laid out in a north–south transect following the river on both sides.

Key Results

It is shown that clonal growth is far more common than previously shown in this species, although the overall size of the genets is small (mean diameter = 6·4 cm). Across the whole population there is no indication of isolation by distance, and spatial genetic structure is only visible on fine spatial scales. In addition, no effect of the river on the spatial distribution of genotypes was found.

Conclusions

Unexpectedly, the data show that populations of small perennials like A. lyrata can behave like panmictic units across relatively large areas at local sites, as opposed to earlier findings in central Europe.     

Genetic variability of New Zealand seagrass (Zostera muelleri) assessed at multiple spatial scales

We conducted RAPD analyses at multiple spatial scales to contribute to the conservation and future restoration of New Zealand's seagrass, Zostera muelleri Irmisch ex Asch. (Zosteraceae). Initially we focused on fine-scale genetic variation within two estuaries on the North Island, one on the East coast the other on the West coast. Within each estuary individuals were genetically similar, however, there was clear genetic separation between the two sites (genetic distance D = 0.2965). Genetic variation within a sampling location (m scale) was similar to that observed among sampling locations (km scale) within a site (21% and 28%, respectively) and smaller than that observed between sites (51%). We then expanded our sampling to include a further six populations distributed across almost the entire latitudinal (ca. 15°) gradient of the North and South Islands. At this scale genetic differences were closely correlated with coastal currents. There was a clear separation between North Island and South Island populations and further separation between the East and West coast populations of each Island. Sites located along the same section of coastline were more genetically similar than those from the opposite coast and other Island. Genetic similarity was highest within each of the sites, indicating a low degree of gene flow between populations. We recommend that any future restoration and conservation projects use only locally eco-sourced materials for population augmentations.     

Metapopulation structure of the specialized herbivore Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria (Homoptera,Aphididae)

We investigated population dynamics, genetic diversity and spatial structure in the aphid species Macrosiphoniella tanacetaria, a specialist herbivore feeding on tansy, Tanacetum vulgare. Tansy plants (genets) consist of many shoots (ramets), and genets are grouped in sites. Thus, aphids feeding on tansy can cluster at the level of ramets, genets and sites. We studied aphid population dynamics in 1997 and 2001 and found that within sites: (i). at any time, aphids used only a fraction of the available ramets and genets; (ii). at the level of ramets, most aphid colonies survived only one week; (iii). at the level of genets, mean survival time was less than 4 weeks; and (iv). colonization and extinction events occurred throughout the season. We sampled aphids in seven sites in the Alsace region, France (4-45 km apart) and two sites in Germany in 1999 to study genetic structure within and between populations. Genetic analyses using nine microsatellite loci showed that: (i). genotypic variability was high, (ii). none of the populations was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, (iii). heterozygote deficits and linkage disequilibria were frequent, and (iv). all populations were genetically differentiated, even at a small geographical scale. Renewed sampling of the Alsace sites in 2001 showed that three populations had become extinct and significant genetic changes had occurred in the remaining four populations. The frequencies of extinction and colonization events at several spatial scales suggest a hierarchical metapopulation structure for M. tanacetaria. Frequent population turnover and drift are likely causes for the genetic differentiation of M. tanacetaria populations.     

乌拉山自然保护区白桦种群的年龄结构和点格局分析

白桦群落是乌拉山森林植被的主要类型之一,在高海拔阴坡、半阴坡以纯林形式分布.根据乌拉山自然保护区白桦林不同林龄结构设置3个典型样地,采用种群径级结构代替年龄结构、点格局分析(Ripley's K-Function)方法探讨了乌拉山白桦种群年龄结构、空间分布规律和种群动态.结果表明:(1)乌拉山自然保护区白桦种群径级结构呈典型的“金字塔”型,种群自然更新良好,属增长型种群;(2)由于种内不同个体间为争夺空间和资源,种群在第Ⅲ、Ⅳ径级死亡率较高,自疏作用明显;(3)白桦种群的存活曲线接近于Deevey Ⅰ型曲线;(4)在研究尺度内白桦种群以幼树、中龄树为主时呈聚集分布,而成龄树或老龄树占多数时呈随机分布,即随着种群年龄的增加,其分布格局逐渐由集群分布向随机分布转变.乌拉山白桦种群在小于1.5m的尺度呈聚集分布,即具有2株以上个体“丛生”现象.在环境条件相似的情况下,白桦种群自身的生物、生态学特性是影响其分布格局的最主要因素.     

Antimicrobial resistant coliform bacteria in the Gomti river water and determination of their tolerance level

The distribution of resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, sulfonamides, tetracycline, and streptomycin among coliform in the Gomti river water samples was investigated. The coliform populations were isolated on Mac Conky and eosin methylene blue (EMB) agar plates supplemented with antibiotics. The incidence of resistance among the coliform population varied considerably in different drug and water sampling sites. Coliform bacteria showed lower drug resistant viable count in sampling site-III (receiving treated wastewater) as compared to more polluted site-I and site-II. Viable count of coliform population obtained on both medium was recorded higher against erythromycin from sampling site-III. Lower viable count of coliforms was recorded against tetracycline in site-II and III. Similar resistance pattern was obtained in the frequency of E. coli and Enterobacter species from all the three sampling sites. Percentage of antibiotic resistant E. coli was observed higher than Enterobacter spp among the total coliforms against all antibiotics tested without Erythromycin and penicillin in site-I and II respectively. Isolates of E. coli and Enterobacter spp. showed their tolerance level (MIC) in the range of 2-100 against the antibiotics tested. Maximum number of isolates of both genus exhibited their MICs at lower concentration range 2-5µg/ml against ciprofloxacin, tetracyclin and amoxycillin.

Abbreviations

EMB - Eosin methylene blue, IMViC tests - Indole, Methyl Red, Voges Proskauer and Citrate Utilization Tests, MIC - Minimum inhibitory concentration.     

Similarity in seasonal flow regimes,not regional environmental classifications explain synchrony in brown trout population dynamics in France

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Inter and intraspecific genetic diversity (RAPD) among three most frequent species of macrofungi (Ganoderma lucidum,Leucoagricus sp. and Lentinus sp.) of Tropical forest of Central India

In present study seven RAPD primers were used to access the diversity within and among twelve populations of three mushroom species Ganoderma lucidum, leucoagaricus sp. and Lentinus sp. Total of 111 bands were scored by 7 RAPD primers in 30 accessions of three mushroom species collected from different sampling sites of central India. Total 111 bands were generated using seven primers which were F-1, OPG-06, OPC-07, OPD-08, OPA-02, OPD-02, OPB-10. All 111 bands were polymorphic in nature (100%). Therefore, it revealed that the used primers had sufficient potency for population studies and 30 accessions had higher genetic differences among each other. In best of the knowledge, this is the first report, which accesses the genetic diversity between three mushroom species (Gd Ganoderma lucidum, Lg Leucoagaricus sp., Ls Lentinus). The polymorphic percentage ranged from 3.60 to 23% within twelve populations, while polymorphic percentage among group was 40.56, among population within groups was 41.12 and within population was 18.32. This indicated that the genetic diversity within the population was very low, but slightly higher in the populations of three species. Among three groups representing Gd., Lg and Ls, Among populations within groups shown highest percentage of variation (Pv?=?41.12) while within populations, the lowest percentage of variation (18.32) was observed. This result also support that the highest genetic variation was present among groups in comparison to among the population within a species and lowest genetic variation was observed within the population.     

A spatial statistical model for landscape genetics

Landscape genetics is a new discipline that aims to provide information on how landscape and environmental features influence population genetic structure. The first key step of landscape genetics is the spatial detection and location of genetic discontinuities between populations. However, efficient methods for achieving this task are lacking. In this article, we first clarify what is conceptually involved in the spatial modeling of genetic data. Then we describe a Bayesian model implemented in a Markov chain Monte Carlo scheme that allows inference of the location of such genetic discontinuities from individual geo-referenced multilocus genotypes, without a priori knowledge on populational units and limits. In this method, the global set of sampled individuals is modeled as a spatial mixture of panmictic populations, and the spatial organization of populations is modeled through the colored Voronoi tessellation. In addition to spatially locating genetic discontinuities, the method quantifies the amount of spatial dependence in the data set, estimates the number of populations in the studied area, assigns individuals to their population of origin, and detects individual migrants between populations, while taking into account uncertainty on the location of sampled individuals. The performance of the method is evaluated through the analysis of simulated data sets. Results show good performances for standard data sets (e.g., 100 individuals genotyped at 10 loci with 10 alleles per locus), with high but also low levels of population differentiation (e.g., F_ST < 0.05). The method is then applied to a set of 88 individuals of wolverines (Gulo gulo) sampled in the northwestern United States and genotyped at 10 microsatellites.