Nitrogenase activity of immobilized Azotobacter vinelandii.

As part of a program to investigate the use of biological nitrogen fixation for fertilizer ammonia production, an investigation into the immobilization of the aerobic, nitrogen-fixing bacterium, Azotobacter vinelandii was undertaken. Immobilization was acaccomplished by adsorption onto an anionic exchange cellulose (Cellex E) with loadings as high as 10' cells/g resin. Immobilized cell preparations were tested under both batch and continuous-flow conditions. Nitrogenase activities as high as 4200 nmol/min g resin were observed as measured by the acetylene reduction assay. Immobilized cells retained their activity for as long as 117 hr in a continuous-flow reactor. Activity loss appeared to be related to the development of a variant strain.     

Nitrogenase in synchronized Azotobacter vinelandii OP.

Azotobacter vinelandii OP was synchronized by the continuous phased culture technique. The nitrogenase (nitrogen:(acceptor)oxidoreductase)(EC 1.7.99.2) activity of the culture was determined continuously within the fermentor by acetylene reduction. Addition of NH4+ in excess of 5 x 10(-3)M to the culture lowered nitrogenase activity immediately. Other sources of fixed nitrogen had no immediate effect on nitrogenase activity, but nitrogenase synthesis decreased in the cell cycle following the one in which the fixed nitrogen was added.     

Respiratory Protection of Nitrogenase Activity in Azotobacter vinelandii—Roles of the Terminal Oxidases

Nitrogen fixation by aerobic prokaryotes appears paradoxical: the nitrogen-fixing enzymes—nitrogenases—are notoriously oxygen-labile, yet many bacteria fix nitrogen aerobically. This review summarises the evidence that cytochrome bd, a terminal oxidase unrelated to the mitochondrial and many other bacterial oxidases, plays a crucial role in aerotolerant nitrogen fixation in Azotobacter vinelandii and other bacteria by rapidly consuming oxygen during uncoupled respiration. We review the pertinent properties of this oxidase, particularly its complement of redox centres, the catalytic cycle of oxygen reduction, the affinity of the oxidase for oxygen, and the regulation of cytochrome bd gene expression. The roles of other oxidases and other mechanisms for limiting damage to nitrogenase are assessed.     

Mutant of Azotobacter vinelandii That Hyperproduces Nitrogenase Component II

A mutant strain of Azotobacter vinelandii that is unable to fix N(2) produces high levels of nitrogenase component II. Activities of revertants from this mutant strain indicate that a single genetic lesion is responsible for both hyperproduction of component II and the inability to produce component I.     

Aerobic Hydrogen Production via Nitrogenase in Azotobacter vinelandii CA6

The diazotroph Azotobacter vinelandii possesses three distinct nitrogenase isoenzymes, all of which produce molecular hydrogen as a by-product. In batch cultures, A. vinelandii strain CA6, a mutant of strain CA, displays multiple phenotypes distinct from its parent: tolerance to tungstate, impaired growth and molybdate transport, and increased hydrogen evolution. Determining and comparing the genomic sequences of strains CA and CA6 revealed a large deletion in CA6''s genome, encompassing genes related to molybdate and iron transport and hydrogen reoxidation. A series of iron uptake analyses and chemostat culture experiments confirmed iron transport impairment and showed that the addition of fixed nitrogen (ammonia) resulted in cessation of hydrogen production. Additional chemostat experiments compared the hydrogen-producing parameters of different strains: in iron-sufficient, tungstate-free conditions, strain CA6''s yields were identical to those of a strain lacking only a single hydrogenase gene. However, in the presence of tungstate, CA6 produced several times more hydrogen. A. vinelandii may hold promise for developing a novel strategy for production of hydrogen as an energy compound.     

棕色固氮菌nifZ与固氮酶钼铁蛋白P—cluster合成的关系

与野生型固氮菌（OP）MoFe蛋白相比,缺失nifZ的棕色固氮菌（AzotobactervinelandiiLipann）突变种的△nifZMoFe蛋白对乙炔的还原活性和Fe／Mo比值都显著降低。在相同实验条件下从这两种MoFe蛋白中抽提出的FeMoco在催化活性和金属组成方面都很相似,而这两种蛋白的圆二色（CD）谱则有显著差异,除在540－750nm外,△nifZMoFe蛋白在可见光区域380－540nm的△ε明显降低并在430nm附近处出现一个奇特的尖负峰;而在紫外区域的208nm和222nm负峰的高度却明显增加。△nifZMoFe蛋白可在合适浓度的PEG8000和MgCl2溶液中结晶出来,而晶体大小和出现沉淀多少与上述CD谱的负峰有关。这表明：棕色固氮菌nifZ与MoFe蛋白P-cluster的合成有关,并由此影响蛋白质的构象、稳定性和结晶过程。     

棕色固氮菌缺失nifE的突变种固氮酶钼铁蛋白的结晶

从限氨固氮培养基中培养棕色固氮菌(Azotobacter vinelandii Lipmann)缺失nifE的突变种DJ35中,分离纯化得到缺失FeMoco的钼铁蛋白(ΔnifE Av1).在一定条件下结晶得到深棕色短斜四棱柱晶体.结晶溶液中各组分的浓度以及结晶方法等对其晶核数目、晶体大小和质量有明显影响.目前用气相扩散的悬滴法所得的最大晶体的二维边长分别为0.12 mm和0.13 mm.     

棕色固氮菌缺失nifE的突变种固氮酶钼铁蛋白的结晶

从限氨固氮培养基中培养棕色固氮菌（Azotobacter vinelandii Lipmann)缺失nifE的突变种DJ35中,分离纯化得到缺失FeMoco的钼铁蛋白（△nifEAvl)。在一定条件下结晶得到深棕色短斜四棱柱晶体。结晶溶液中各组分的浓度以及结晶方法等对其晶核数目,晶体大小和质量有明显影响,目前用气相扩散的悬滴法所得的最大晶体的二维边长分别为0.12mm和0.13mm。     

Relationship Between nifZ and the Synthesis of P cluster in Nitrogenase MoFe Protein of Azotobacter vinelandii

In comparison with OP MoFe protein from wild type strain Azotobacter vinelandii Lipmann, the C2H2-reduction activity and atom ratio of Fe to Mo of △nifZ MoFe protein from a nifZ deletion strain of A. vinelandii were remarkably decreased. FeMoco, which were extracted from these two proteins under the same condition, were almost similar to each other in activity and metal composition, and the circular dichroism (CD) spectra of these proteins were significantly different from each other. In the visible region except 540 750 nm, the △ε at 380 - 540 nm of △nifZ MoFe protein decreased and had a peculiar sharp negative peak around 430 nm; and in the ultraviolet region, the peaks at 208 nm and 222 nm were higher than those of OP MoFe protein. △nifZ MoFe protein could be crystallized in a suitable concentration of PEG 8000 and MgCl2, the size of crystals and amount of precipitation seemed to be related to the above-mentioned negative peaks. The results showed that △nifZ of Azotobacter vinelanclii might be related to the synthesis of P-cluster, rather than to that of FeMoco, which resulted in its conformation, stability and process of crystallization.     

Phospholipids of Azotobacter vinelandii

Analyses of resting cells of Azotobacter vinelandii revealed that numerous phospholipids were present that did not concentrate in the membranous R(3) fraction which carried out electron transport function.     

Effect of PEG and Salt on Crystallization of Bacterioferritin and Nitrogenase MoFe Protein from Azotobacter vinelandii

MgCl2 was added to the supernatant of the first crystallization of MoFe protein to give a final concentration of 14.6 mmol/L, followed by centrifugation. The treated supematant solution and MoFe protein could be crystallized by using method of siting drop with PEG 6000 and MgC12 as a precipitant and salt, respectively. The larger crystal from the supermatant was observed when the final concentration of PEG and MgCl2 was 4.5% and 15.6 mmol/L, respectively; but small crystal was observed when the concentration was 0 and 23.8 mmol/L, respectively. The larger crystal in brown rectangular prism of MoFe protein was also obtained using the same crystallization method when the final concentration of PEG and MgCI2 was 7.44% and 338.0 mmol/L, respectively. It suggests that the two protein crystals seem to be different, the former being bacterioferritin and the later as nitrogenase MoFe protein.     

缺失nifZ的棕色固氮菌突变种钼铁蛋白的特性和结晶

从棕色固氮菌（Ａｚｏｔｏｂａｃｔｅｒ　ｖｉｎｅｌａｎｄｉｉ）缺失ｎｉｆＺ突变种中提纯得到的Δｎｉｆ　ＺＭｏＦｅ蛋白达到ＳＤＳ凝胶电泳纯。每个△ｎｆｉ　ＺＭｏＦｅ蛋白分子含１．５个Ｍｏ和１５．９个Ｆｅ原子,它的Ｆｅ和Ｍｏ比值低于野生型固氮菌ＭｏＦｅ蛋白的Ｆｅ和Ｍｏ比值,而它的Ｃ２Ｈ２、Ｈ＋还原活性及其比率（Ｃ２Ｈ４／Ｈ２（Ａｒ））分别为野生型ＭｏＦｅ蛋白的１６．６％、２１．７％和７７．２％。在与野生型ＭｏＦｅ蛋白结晶条件略有不同的情况下,所得的Δｎｉｆ　Ｚ　ＭｏＦｅ蛋白晶体为深棕色的斜四棱柱体晶体。表明ｎｉｆＺ的缺失可能使突变种ＭｏＦｅ蛋白中的Ｐ－ｃｌｕｓｔｅｒ或数目减少或结构发生变化,从而引起该蛋白的结构和功能发生明显改变。     

Characteristics and Crystallization of Nitrogenase MoFe Protein from a nif Z Deleted Strain of Azotobacter vinelandii

△nifZ MoFe protein purified from a nifZ deleted strain of Azotobacter vinelandii (DJ194) was shown to be pure by SDS-Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The protein contained 1.5 Mo atoms and 15.9 Fe atoms per molecule, the ratio of Fe to Mo was lower than that of the MoFe protein purified from the wild type strain of A. vinelandii; and Call2, H+ -reduction activity and their ratio (C2H4/H2 (Ar)) were 16.6%, 21.7% and 77.2% of those of the wild type MoFe protein, respectively. Under a somewhat different condition from that for the crystallization of the wild type MoFe protein dark brown rhombohedron crystals of △nifZ MoFe protein were obtained. It indicated that the deletion of the △nif Z resulted in the decrease of number or change in the structure of P-cluster in the mutant MoFe protein, which caused the significant structured and function of change of the protein.     

Ultrastructure of Azotobacter vinelandii

Vegetative cells and cysts of Azotobacter vinelandii 12837 were prepared for electron microscopy by several methods assumed to preserve structural details destroyed by techniques previously reported in the literature. Examination of large numbers of cells and cysts by these methods revealed four structural details not reported previously: intine fibrils, intine vesicles, intine membrane, and microtubules. The intine fibrils form a network in the gel-like homogeneous matrix of the CC2 layer. Intine vesicles which seem to originate in the cell wall complex of the central body are seen in the intine and exine of cysts. Analogous structures are found on vegetative cells. The intine is divided into two chemically distinct areas by the two-layered intine membrane. Microtubules, previously reported only in vegetative cells, were found in cysts.     

Beta-ketothiolase genes in Azotobacter vinelandii

Azotobacter vinelandii is proposed to contain a single β-ketothiolase activity participating in the formation of acetoacetyl-CoA, a precursor for poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) synthesis, and in β-oxidation (Manchak, J., Page, W.J., 1994. Control of polyhydroxyalkanoate synthesis in Azotobacter vinelandii strain UWD. Microbiology 140, 953–963). We designed a degenerate oligonucleotide from a highly conserved region among bacterial β-ketothiolases and used it to identify bktA, a gene with a deduced protein product with a high similarity to β-ketothiolases. Immediately downstream of bktA, we identified a gene called hbdH, which encodes a protein exhibiting similarity to β-hydroxyacyl-CoA and β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenases. Two regions with homology to bktA were also observed. One of these was cloned and allowed the identification of the phbA gene, encoding a second β-ketothiolase. Strains EV132, EV133, and GM1 carrying bktA, hbdH and phbA mutations, respectively, as well as strain EG1 carrying both bktA and phbA mutations, were constructed. The hbdH mutation had no effect on β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase activity or on fatty acid assimilation. The bktA mutation had no effect on β-ketothiolase activity, PHB synthesis or fatty acid assimilation, whereas the phbA mutation significantly reduced β-ketothiolase activity and PHB accumulation, showing that this is the β-ketothiolase involved in PHB biosynthesis. Strain EG1 was found to grow under β-oxidation conditions and to possess β-ketothiolase activity. Taken together, these results demonstrate the presence of three genes coding for β-ketothiolases in A. vinelandii.     

Studies on the Circular Dichroism (CD) Spectra of Iron-Molyb-denum Protein from Azotobacter vinelandii Nitrogenase

Since the unsymmetry of metal cluster(P-cluster), which was under different redox states, in FeMo protein of A. vinelandii nitrogenase could be observed by circular dichroism, the numbers of the redox equivalent for the P-cluster was obtained by CD titration of DT-stripped FeMo protein with oxidant, i.e. plotting △δ450nm against the number of equivalent of oxidant added. After exposure to air, at the beginning P-cluster was reversibly oxidized, then followed by irreversible oxygen-damage. Dithiothreitol (DTT) was able to increase the C2H2-reduction activity of FeMo protein, which was not severely damaged by O2, or by other stronger oxidants, but could not change their CD spectra. It seems that the reactivation may be not due to the restoration of the P-cluster to its reducing state.     

Purification and Properties of Nitrogenase MoFe Protein from a nif Z Deletion Strain of Azotobacter vinelandii

The MoFe protein of the nif Z deletion strain (△nif Z MoFe protein) of Azotobac ter vinelandii designated DJ 194 was purified and some properties were studied. The cell free extract of DJ 194 was more sensitive to O2 and heat than the wild-type extract. The specific activity of the purified DJ 194 protein was 283 nmol C2H2 reduced/(min · mg protein), which was much lower than that of purified wild-type A. vinelandii MoFe protein. The △nif Z MoFe protein exhibited a visible similar absorption spectra as the wild type MoFe protein, yet showed significant difference in CD and MCD spectra at the region about 450 mm com paring with the spectral property of the wild-type MoFe protein. This seems to indicate that the P-cluster of the △nif Z MoFe protein was modified, which might be the cause of the low activity of the DJ 194 MoFe protein.