Functions and action mechanisms of flavonoids genistein and icariin in regulating bone remodeling

Increasingly natural products particularly flavonoids are being explored for their therapeutic potentials in reducing bone loss and maintaining bone health. This study has reviewed previous studies on the two better known flavonoids, genistein and icariin, their structures, functions, action mechanisms, relative potency, and potential application in regulating bone remodeling and preventing bone loss. Genistein, an isoflavone abundant in soy, has dual functions on bone cells, able to inhibit bone resorption activity of osteoclasts and stimulate osteogenic differentiation and maturation of bone marrow stromal progenitor cells (BMSCs) and osteoblasts. Genistein is an estrogen receptor (ER)‐selective binding phytoestrogen, with a greater affinity to ERβ. Genistein inhibits tyrosine kinases and inhibits DNA topoisomerases I and II, and may act as an antioxidant. Genistein enhances osteoblastic differentiation and maturation by activation of ER, p38MAPK‐Runx2, and NO/cGMP pathways, and it inhibits osteoclast formation and bone resorption through inducing osteoclastogenic inhibitor osteoprotegerin (OPG) and blocking NF‐κB signaling. Icariin, a prenylated flavonol glycoside isolated from Epimedium herb, stimulates osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs and inhibits bone resorption activity of osteoclasts. Icariin, whose metabolites include icariside I, icariside II, icaritin, and desmethylicaritin, has no estrogenic activity. However, icariin is more potent than genistein in promoting osteogenic differentiation and maturation of osteoblasts. The existence of a prenyl group on C‐8 of icariin molecular structure has been suggested to be the reason why icariin is more potent than genistein in osteogenic activity. Thus, the prenylflavonoids may represent a class of flavonoids with a higher osteogenic activity. J. Cell. Physiol. 228: 513–521, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Genistein suppresses leptin‐induced proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells and neointima formation

Obesity is a strong risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases and is associated with a marked increase in circulating leptin concentration. Leptin is a peptide hormone mainly produced by adipose tissue and is regulated by energy level, hormones and various inflammatory mediators. Genistein is an isoflavone that exhibits diverse health‐promoting effects. Here, we investigated whether genistein suppressed the atherogenic effect induced by leptin. The A10 cells were treated with leptin and/or genistein, and then the cell proliferation and migration were analysed. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) and proteins levels were also measured, such as p44/42MAPK, cell cycle‐related protein (cyclin D1 and p21) and matrix metalloproteinase‐2 (MMP‐2). Immunohistochemistry and morphometric analysis were used for the neointima formation in a rat carotid artery injury model. Genistein (5 μM) significantly inhibited both the proliferation and migration of leptin (10 ng/ml)‐stimulated A10 cells. In accordance with these finding, genistein decreased the leptin‐stimulated ROS production and phosphorylation of the p44/42MAPK signal transduction pathway. Meanwhile, genistein reversed the leptin‐induced expression of cyclin D1, and cyclin‐dependent kinase inhibitor, p21. Genistein attenuated leptin‐induced A10 cell migration by inhibiting MMP‐2 activity. Furthermore, the leptin (0.25 mg/kg)‐augmented neointima formation in a rat carotid artery injury model was attenuated in the genistein (5 mg/kg body weight)‐treated group when compared with the balloon injury plus leptin group. Genistein was capable of suppressing the atherogenic effects of leptin in vitro and in vivo, and may be a promising candidate drug in the clinical setting.     

Anticancer activities of genistein‐topotecan combination in prostate cancer cells

Prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of death in men aged 40 to 55. Genistein isoflavone (4′, 5′, 7‐trihydroxyisoflavone) is a dietary phytochemical with demonstrated anti‐tumour activities in a variety of cancers. Topotecan Hydrochloride (Hycamtin) is an FDA‐approved chemotherapy drug, primarily used for secondary treatment of ovarian, cervical and small cell lung cancers. This study was to demonstrate the potential anticancer efficacy of genistein‐topotecan combination in LNCaP prostate cancer cells and the mechanism of the combination treatment. The LNCaP cells were grown in complete RPMI medium, and cultured at 37°C, 5% CO₂ for 24–48 hrs to achieve 70–90% confluency. The cells were treated with varying concentrations of genistein, topotecan and genistein‐topotecan combination and incubated for 24 hrs. The treated cells were assayed for (i) post‐treatment sensitivity using MTT assay and DNA fragmentation, (ii) treatment‐induced apoptosis using caspase‐3 and ‐9 binding assays and (iii) treatment‐induced ROS generation levels. The overall data indicated that (i) both genistein and topotecan induce cellular death in LNCaP cells, (ii) genistein‐topotecan combination was significantly more efficacious in reducing LNCaP cell viability compared with either genistein or topotecan alone, (iii) in all cases, cell death was primarily through apoptosis, via the activation of caspase‐3 and ‐9, which are involved in the intrinsic pathway, (iv) ROS generation levels increased significantly with the genistein‐topotecan combination treatment. Treatments involving genistein‐topotecan combination may prove to be an attractive alternative phytotherapy or adjuvant therapy for prostate cancer.     

Genistein prevents the glucose autoxidation mediated atherogenic modification of low density lipoprotein

Hyperglycemia has been assumed to be responsible for oxidative stress in diabetes. In this respect, glucose autoxidation and advanced glycation end products (AGE) may play a causal role in the etiology of diabetic complications as e.g. atherosclerosis. There is now growing evidence that the oxidative modification of LDL plays a potential role in atherogenesis. Glucose derived oxidants have been shown to peroxidise LDL. In the present study, genistein, a compound derived from soy with a flavonoid chemical structure (4′, 5, 7-trihydroxyisoflavone) has been evaluated for its ability to act as an antioxidant against the atherogenic modification of LDL by glucose autoxidation radical products. Daidzein, (4′, 7-dihydroxyisoflavone) an other phytoestrogen of soy, was tested in parallel. Genistein — in contrast to daidzein — effectively prevented the glucose mediated LDL oxidation as measured by thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance formation (TBARS), alteration in electrophoretic mobility, lipid hydroperoxides and fluorescence quenching of tryptophan residues of the lipoprotein. In addition the potential of glucose-oxidized LDL to increase tissue factor (TF) synthesis in human endothelial cells (HUVEC) was completely inhibited when genistein was present during LDL oxidative modification by glucose. Both phytoestrogens did not influence the nonenzymatic protein glycation reaction as measured by the in vitro formation of glycated LDL. As the protective effect of genistein on LDL atherogenic modification was found at glucose/genistein molar ratios which may occur in vivo, our findings support the suggested beneficial action of a soy diet in preventing chronic vascular diseases and early atherogenic events.     

Genistein, a natural phytoestrogen from soy, relieves neuropathic pain following chronic constriction sciatic nerve injury in mice: anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity

There is great interest in soy isoflavones as alternatives to endogenous estrogens not only in hormonal pathologies, but also in inflammatory, neurodegenerative diseases, and pain. We investigated the effect of the isoflavone genistein on neuropathic pain. Genistein binds estrogen receptors (ER) with higher affinity for the ERbeta particularly expressed in neuronal and immune cells. Neuropathy was induced in mice by means of chronic sciatic nerve constriction, and the subcutaneous administration of genistein from the third day after the lesion reversed pain hypersensitivity in a time- and dose-dependent manner. This effect may have been due to the activation of classical nuclear receptor and/or anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulating properties of genistein. The fact that a specific ERbeta antagonist prevented both its anti-allodynic and anti-hyperalgesic action, whereas a specific ERalpha antagonist was ineffective and a non-selective ER antagonist only reversed the anti-allodynic effect, suggests the involvement of ERbeta. Antioxidant effects are also involved as the anti-nociceptive dose reversed the increase in reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde in injured paw tissues, and increased the activity of anti-oxidant enzymes. The phytoestrogen had immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities as it reduced peripheral and central nuclear factor-kappaB, nitric oxide system and pro-inflammatory cytokine over-activation. Taken together, our results suggest that genistein could ameliorate painful neuropathy by multiple mechanisms.     

Phytoestrogens genistein and daidzin enhance the acetylcholinesterase activity of the rat pheochromocytoma cell line PC12 by binding to the estrogen receptor

Some compounds derived from plants have been known to possess estrogenic properties and can thus alter the physiology of higher organisms. Genistein and daidzin are examples of these phytoestrogens, which have recently been the subject of extensive research. In this study, genistein and daidzin were found to enhance the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity of the rat neuronal cell line PC12 at concentrations as low as 0.08 μM by binding to the estrogen receptor (ER). Results have shown that this enhancement was effectively blocked by the known estrogen receptor antagonist tamoxifen, indicating the involvement of the ER in AChE induction. That genistein and daidzin are estrogenic were confirmed in a cell proliferation assay using the human breast cancer cell line MCF7. This proliferation was also blocked by tamoxifen, again indicating the involvement of the ER. On the other hand, incubating the PC12 cells in increasing concentrations of 17 β-estradiol (E2) did not lead to enhanced AChE activity, even in the presence of genistein or daidzin. This suggests that mere binding of an estrogenic compound to the ER does not necessarily lead to enhanced AChE activity. Moreover, the effect of the phytoestrogens on AChE activity cannot be expressed in the presence of E2 since they either could not compete with the natural ligand in binding to the ER or that E2 down-regulates its own receptor. This study clearly suggests that genistein and daidzin enhance AChE activityin PC12 cells by binding to the ER; however, the actual mechanism of enhancement is not known. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Exogenously Hypercholesterolemic Rats, Compared with Their Progenitor Sprague-Dawley Rats, Have Altered mRNAs for Cholesterol 7α-Hydroxylase and Low-Density-Lipoprotein Receptor and Activities of Cholesterol 7α-Hydroxylase and Acyl-CoA:Cholesterol Acyltransferase in the Liver in Response to Dietary Cholesterol

Exogenously hypercholesterolemic (ExHC) rats promptly increase serum cholesterol concentration in response to dietary cholesterol. To examine underlying mechanism(s) for this susceptibility, responses of mRNAs for cholesterol metabolism-related proteins and their activities in the liver to dietary cholesterol were compared between ExHC rats and their progenitor Sprague-Dawley rats. ExHC rats slightly decreased the abundance of low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) receptor mRNA in response to dietary cholesterol, although the amount of LDL receptor was not influenced. The abundance of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase mRNA and the enzyme activity in response to dietary cholesterol were greater in ExHC rats, but the fecal excretion of bile acid was comparable between the strain. Dietary cholesterol-dependent elevation of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase activity was greater in ExHC rats. The concentration of liver triacylglycerols was markedly lower in ExHC rats. These results suggest that ExHC rats may increase serum cholesterol by increasing hepatic secretion of cholesteryl ester-rich particles.     

金雀异黄酮通过减少卵巢切除大鼠心肌小凹蛋白-1的表达而增加一氧化氮的生成

观察金雀异黄酮(genistein)替代治疗对卵巢切除大鼠心肌中一氧化氮(nitric oxide,NO)和内皮型一氧化氮合酶(endothelial nitric oxide synthase,eNOS)的影响.成年雌性Sprague-Dawley大鼠经双侧卵巢切除术,假手术组作为对照,术后三周将行卵巢切除术的大鼠随机分为低剂量genistein(0.5 mg/kg·d1)、高剂量genistein(5.0 mg/kg·d-1)、17-β雌二醇(0.1 mg/kg·d-1)和模型组(100μl/d芝麻油),各组均皮下注射给药并给予不含大豆的饲料喂养6周,测定大鼠尾动脉血压、心率,麻醉后放血处死大鼠称量子宫重量;放免法检测血浆中总雌二醇,亚硝酸还原酶法检测心肌匀浆中NO,Western blot检测心肌中eNOS的表达以及eNOS的调节蛋白小凹蛋白-1(caveolin-1)和钙调素(calmodulin)的表达情况.结果显示各组间大鼠血压无显著性差异,同17-β雌二醇一样,genistein能呈剂量依赖性地增加心肌组织中eNOS表达量和NO生成,同时genistein能明显降低内源性eNOS活性抑制物caveolin-1的表达,而不影响eNOS活性正性调节蛋白钙调素的表达.与溶媒对照组比较,0.5 mg/kg·d-1的genistein不增加子宫重量,5.0 mg/kg·d-1的genistein增加子宫重量3倍,但较17-β雌二醇(增加6倍)的作用小(P＜0.01).上述结果提示,植物雌激素genistein剂量依赖性地上调心肌组织eNOS的活性并增加NO的生成,减少抑制eNOS活性的小凹蛋白-1表达.     

Genistein对大鼠垂体前叶细胞增殖的抑制作用

应用细胞培养、^3H-TdR掺入、流式细胞和电镜技术,观察酪氨酸蛋白激酶（PTK）抑制剂genistein对正常大鼠垂体前叶细胞和垂体瘤细胞株AtT-20增殖的影响,并探讨其可能的机制。结果显示：genistein作用48h后可明显抑制正常大鼠垂体前叶细胞和垂体瘤细胞株AtT-20增殖。流式细胞仪检测发现,50和100μmol/L genistein可将AtT-20细胞阻断于G0／G1期及G2／M期,并出现凋亡峰,凋亡率分别灰19.9％和36.4％。电镜照片显示有凋亡细胞。结果表明,PTK抑制剂可以明显抑制正常大鼠垂体前叶细胞和垂体瘤细胞株AtT-20的殖,并诱导细胞凋亡,说明PTK活性对细胞增殖和分化有重要作用。     

Gender related differences in paraoxonase 1 response to high-fat diet-induced oxidative stress

Objective: To evaluate the influence of the pro‐oxidant and proinflammatory state related to dietary obesity on serum paraoxonase 1 (PON1) activity in male and female rats. Methods and Procedures: Adult Wistar rats of both genders were fed on a high‐fat diet to induce weight gain or standard diet for 14 weeks. Body weight was assessed weekly and food intake fortnightly throughout the dietary treatment. Biometrical parameters and serum lipid profile, glucose, insulin, and adipokine levels were measured. To assess the effect of dietary obesity on oxidative stress, levels of liver and serum thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, liver protein carbonyl groups, liver antioxidant enzymes activities, and serum PON1 activities were measured. Results: High‐fat diet feeding induced a significant body weight gain in both male and female rats, as well as a reduction of liver antioxidant protection. High‐fat diet increased serum lipid peroxides in male rats and reduced serum PON1 activities and serum apolipoprotein A‐I (apoA‐I) levels in females, although did not alter serum PON1 or apolipoprotein J (apoJ) levels. Discussion: Our results reveal a gender dimorphism in the high‐fat diet‐induced reduction of serum PON1 activity, which is likely to be related to the greater obese and proinflammatory state achieved in female rats. We suggest that the enhanced oxidative stress caused by dietary increased body weight, on leading to high‐density lipoprotein (HDL), apoA‐I or PON1 oxidation could entail the destabilization of the PON1 association to HDL or a direct inactivation of PON1 enzymatic activity, thus accounting for the decreased serum PON1 activities observed in female rats.     

Human serum paraoxonase (PON 1) is inactivated by oxidized low density lipoprotein and preserved by antioxidants

Human serum paraoxonase (PON1) can protect low density lipoprotein (LDL) from oxidation induced by either copper ion or by the free radical generator azo bis amidinopropane hydrochloride (AAPH). During LDL oxidation in both of these systems, a time-dependent inactivation of PON arylesterase activity was observed. Oxidized LDL (Ox-LDL) produced by lipoprotein incubation with either copper ion or with AAPH, indeed inactivated PON arylesterase activity by up to 47% or 58%, respectively. Three possible mechanisms for PON inactivation during LDL oxidation were considered and investigated: copper ion binding to PON, free radical attack on PON, and/or the effect of lipoprotein-associated peroxides on the enzyme. As both residual copper ion and AAPH are present in the Ox-LDL preparations and could independently inactivate the enzyme, the effect of minimally oxidized (Ox-LDL produced by LDL storage in the air) on PON activity was also examined. Oxidized LDL, as well as oxidized palmitoyl arachidonoyl phosphatidylcholine (PAPC), lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC, which is produced during LDL oxidation by phospholipase A2-like activity), and oxidized cholesteryl arachidonate (Ox-CA), were all potent inactivators of PON arylesterase activity (PON activity was inhibited by 35%-61%). PON treatment with Ox-LDL (but not with native LDL), or with oxidized lipids, inhibited its arylesterase activity and also reduced the ability of the enzyme to protect LDL against oxidation. PON Arylesterase activity however was not inhibited when PON was pretreated with the sulfhydryl blocking agent, p-hydroxymercurybenzoate (PHMB). Similarly, on using recombinant PON in which the enzyme's only free sulfhydryl group at the position of cysteine-284 was mutated, no inactivation of the enzyme arylesterase activity by Ox-LDL could be shown. These results suggest that Ox-LDL inactivation of PON involves the interaction of oxidized lipids in Ox-LDL with the PON's free sulfhydryl group. Antioxidants such as the flavonoids glabridin or quercetin, when present during LDL oxidation in the presence of PON, reduced the amount of lipoprotein-associated lipid peroxides and preserved PON activities, including its ability to hydrolyze Ox-LDL cholesteryl linoleate hydroperoxides. We conclude that PON's ability to protect LDL against oxidation is accompanied by inactivation of the enzyme. PON inactivation results from an interaction between the enzyme free sulfhydryl group and oxidized lipids such as oxidized phospholipids, oxidized cholesteryl ester or lysophosphatidylcholine, which are formed during LDL oxidation. The action of antioxidants and PON on LDL during its oxidation can be of special benefit against atherosclerosis since these agents reduce the accumulation of Ox-LDL by a dual effect: i.e. prevention of its formation, and removal of Ox-LDL associated oxidized lipids which are generated during LDL oxidation.     

Allyl isothiocyanate as a potential inducer of paraoxonase-1--studies in cultured hepatocytes and in mice

In this study, we tested the ability of structure-related isothiocyanates to induce the antiatherogenic enzyme paraoxonase-1 (PON1) in cultured hepatocytes. Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), phenylethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC), and sulforaphane (SFN), but not butyl isothiocyanate (BITC) resulted in dose-dependent induction of PON1 transactivation in Huh7 cells in vitro. Induction of PON1 due to AITC was inhibited by the selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ-antagonist T0070907. AITC was used in a subsequent in vivo study in mice (n = 10 per group, Western-type diet) to test its PON1 inducing activity. Unlike in cultured hepatocytes, AITC supplementation (15 mg/kg body weight) did not increase hepatic PON1 mRNA and protein levels in mice. Thus, it is suggested that AITC may be a potent inducer of PON1 in vitro, but not in mouse liver in vivo.     

Paraoxonase 1 gene polymorphisms, paraoxonase/arylesterase activities and oxidized low-density lipoprotein levels in patients with migraine

The vascular endothelial dysfunction has been implicated in the pathogenesis of migraine. Oxidized low‐density lipoprotein (ox‐LDL) may impair endothelial function. Paraoxonase‐1 (PON‐1) prevents oxidative modification of LDL cholesterol (LDL‐C). So we investigated serum PON‐1 and arylesterase (ARE) activities, PON‐1 55 L/M and 192Q/R polymorphisms and the serum lipid profile in patients with migraine. Biochemical parameters and PON‐1 polymorphism analyses were assessed in 104 patients with migraine and 86 healthy subjects. Ox‐LDL was detected by ELISA, and polymorphisms were determined using PCR–restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Patients with migraine had lower PON‐1 and ARE activities (p < 0·001, for both) and higher ox‐LDL and LDL‐C levels (p < 0·001, for both) and ox‐LDL: LDL‐C ratio (p < 0·005) than the controls. The genotype distribution and the allele frequencies for PON‐1 55 L/M and 192Q/R polymorphisms were not different among the study populations. The results of our current study indicate that migrainous patients have decreased serum PON‐1 and ARE activities and increased serum ox‐LDL levels, which may have a clinical importance in the treatment of migraine. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Variable effects of tyrosine kinase inhibitors on avian osteoclastic activity and reduction of bone loss in ovariectomized rats

We compared the effects of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein, a naturally occurring isoflavone, to those of tyrphostin A25, tyrphostin A47, and herbimycin on avian osteoclasts in vitro. Inactive analogs daidzein and tyrphostin A1 were used to control for nonspecific effects. None of the tyrosine kinase inhibitors inhibited bone attachment. However, bone resorption was inhibited by genistein and herbimycin with ID₅₀s of 3 μM and 0.1 μM, respectively; tyrphostins and daidzein were inactive at concentrations below 30 μM, where nonspecific effects were noted. Genistein and herbimycin thus inhibit osteoclastic activity via a mechanism independent of cellular attachment, and at doses approximating those inhibiting tyrosine kinase autophosphorylation in vitro; the tyrphostins were inactive at meaningful doses. Because tyrosine kinase inhibitors vary widely in activity spectrum, effects of genistein on cellular metabolic processes were compared to herbimycin. Unlike previously reported osteoclast metabolic inhibitors which achieve a measure of selectivity by concentrating on bone, neither genistein nor herbimycin bound significantly to bone. Osteoclastic protein synthesis, measured as incorporation of ³H-leucine, was significantly inhibited at 10 μM genistein, a concentration greater than that inhibiting bone degradation, while herbimycin reduced protein synthesis at 10 nM. These data suggested that genistein may reduce osteoclastic activity at pharmacologically attainable levels, and that toxic potential was lower than that of herbimycin. To test this hypothesis in a mammalian system, bone mass was measured in 200 g ovariectomized rats treated with 44 μmol/day genistein, relative to untreated controls. During 30 d of treatment, weights of treated and control group animals were indistinguishable, indicating no toxicity, but femoral weight in the treated group was 12% greater than controls (P < 0.05). Our data indicate that the isoflavone inhibitor genistein suppresses osteoclastic activity in vitro and in vivo at concentrations consistent with its ID₅₀s on tyrosine kinases, with a low potential for toxicity. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Genistein differentially inhibits postreceptor effects of insulin in rat adipocytes without inhibiting the insulin receptor kinase.

Genistein, an isoflavone putative tyrosine kinase inhibitor, was used to investigate the coupling of insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activation to four metabolic effects of insulin in the isolated rat adipocyte. Genistein inhibited insulin-stimulated glucose oxidation in a concentration-dependent manner with an ID50 of 25 micrograms/ml and complete inhibition at 100 micrograms/ml. Genistein also prevented insulin's (10(-9) M) inhibition of isoproterenol-stimulated lipolysis with an ID50 of 15 micrograms/ml and a complete effect at 50 micrograms/ml. The effect of genistein (25 micrograms/ml) was not reversed by supraphysiological (10(-7) M) insulin levels. In contrast, genistein up to 100 micrograms/ml had no effect on insulin's (10(-9) M) stimulation of either pyruvate dehydrogenase or glycogen synthase activity. We determined whether genistein influenced insulin receptor beta-subunit autophosphorylation or tyrosine kinase substrate phosphorylation either in vivo or in vitro by anti-phosphotyrosine immunoblotting. Genistein at 100 micrograms/ml did not inhibit insulin's (10(-7) M) stimulation of insulin receptor tyrosine autophosphorylation or tyrosine phosphorylation of the cellular substrates pp185 and pp60. Also, genistein did not prevent insulin-stimulated autophosphorylation of partially purified human insulin receptors from NIH 3T3/HIR 3.5 cells or the phosphorylation of histones by the activated receptor tyrosine kinase. In control experiments using either NIH 3T3 fibroblasts or partially purified membranes from these cells, genistein did inhibit platelet-derived growth factor's stimulation of its receptor autophosphorylation. These findings indicate the following: (a) Genistein can inhibit certain responses to insulin without blocking insulin's stimulation of its receptor tyrosine autophosphorylation or of the receptor kinase substrate tyrosine phosphorylation. (b) In adipocytes genistein must block the stimulation of glucose oxidation and the antilipolytic effects of insulin at site(s) downstream from the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. (c) The inhibitory effects of genistein on hormonal signal transduction cannot necessarily be attributed to inhibition of tyrosine kinase activity, unless specifically demonstrated.