Application of a multi-cylinder evapotranspirometer method for evapotranspiration measurements in wetlands

This paper introduces a multi-cylinder evapotranspirometer method, which can directly measure evapotranspiration (ET) from emergent plants in different species and states as well as simultaneously measure evaporation (E_W) from an open water surface. Values of daily ET from three contrasting reed (Phragmites australis) stands, with different leaf area indexes (LAI), were obtained through in situ measurements of the Baiyangdian wetland using this method during the growing seasons in 2008 and 2009. The results showed that the ET rate of the reed belt was very high, even exceeding 20 mm d⁻¹ under extreme weather conditions. Depending on the LAI change, the annual ET from the different reed canopies ranged from 970 to 2035 mm, whereas the ET/E_W ratios ranged from 2.05 to 3.98. Accuracy analysis results showed that the errors of the measurement from this method were no more than 2 mm. The relative errors of the measurement were correspondingly from 0.04% to 0.33%. It is indicated that the accuracy of our measurement is good enough for the requirements of the ET measurement.     

华北平原参考作物蒸散量时空变化及其影响因素分析

根据华北平原56个气象站1960—2012年逐日气象数据和Penman-Monteith模型计算了各站及区域整体参考作物蒸散量(ET0),利用样条插值法、气候倾向率、累积距平、敏感性系数等方法对华北平原ET0的时空变化及其影响因素进行了分析。结果表明:(1)华北平原多年平均ET0为1071.37mm,空间上呈现高低值相间分布格局,高值中心分布在冀北、鲁中、豫西,而低值中心分布在冀东、鲁南、豫东及豫南等地;(2)近53年ET0呈减少趋势(-12.8mm/10a),山东半岛北部及冀北等地有缓慢增加趋势,其余地区以减少为主;(3)ET0对气温、平均风速、日照时数为正敏感,而对相对湿度为负敏感。平均气温与日照时数敏感系数呈现下降趋势,相对湿度与风速敏感系数表现出上升趋势。ET0对气温和风速敏感度高的区域同时对日照时数和相对湿度敏感度较低;(4)归因分析表明,华北平原ET0的主导因子是日照时数,平均风速次之,相对湿度、最高温度、最低温度对ET0变化影响较小,日照时数主导区域包括冀北、坝上地区、冀中、豫西、豫南、鲁中及鲁西北,平均风速的主导区域为冀南、河南黄河以北、豫中、鲁西北,温度主导区域零星分布于冀北、豫西、山东半岛等地,相对湿度的主导区域主要分布在鲁南、山东半岛。     

黄土高原1961-2009年参考作物蒸散量的时空变异

基于48个站点的气象数据,对黄土高原1961—2009年参考作物蒸散量的空间分布特征和时间变化趋势进行了分析。结果表明,黄土高原年均参考作物蒸散量为1060.3 mm,西北部高于东南部,最低值出现在西南区。1961—2009年整体呈上升趋势,年均增幅1.3 mm;春季变化最显著,冬季变化最小。ET0在1994年发生上升趋势的突变,之后上升趋势一直非常显著。湿度和温度是最重要的影响因子。ET0不断增长而降水呈降低趋势,这将恶化该区水资源短缺的问题,需要采取一定的措施来减缓气候变化带来的负面影响。     

中国西北潜在蒸散时空演变特征及其定量化成因

潜在蒸散是区域干湿状况评价、作物需水量估算和水资源合理规划的关键因子。基于FAO推荐的Penman-Monteith公式和126个台站1961—2009年逐日气象观测资料估算西北干旱半干旱区的潜在蒸散量ET0,并对其空间分布特征进行了讨论。通过非参数化Sen趋势分析法和M-K统计检验法方法分析潜在蒸散的时间演变规律,并定量探讨了西北地区影响ET0变化的主导因素。结果表明:49 a来,西北地区ET0的年平均值约为980.63 mm,其中夏季的值最大,冬季的值最小。年平均ET0的大值区位于西北日照时数的高值中心,低值区主要位于海拔高,气温低的山区。西北地形和气候的多样性导致多年平均潜在蒸散的变化及其原因具有明显的时空差异。ET0的变化主要归因于风速和气温,而相对湿度和日照时数的作用较小。由于风速的负贡献超过气温的正贡献,导致年平均ET0整体上呈下降趋势。四季中,春冬两季的ET0缓慢上升,冬季的变化率是春季的两倍;夏秋两季的ET0有所下降,但只有夏季的变化趋势显著。春、夏、秋三季ET0变化的首要主导因子是风速,而冬季的首要主导因子是气温。空间上,西风带气候区ET0降低主要归因于风速的减小,陕南地区ET0下降主要归因于日照时数的减少,其它地区ET0上升的主要原因是气温的增加。     

西北旱区1961—2011年参考作物蒸散量的时空分异

全球变化背景下分析参考作物蒸散量的变化特征,对于农业生产和水资源管理等有重要指导意义。根据西北旱区152个气象站点1961—2011年气象资料计算参考作物蒸散量(ET0),分析了其空间分布及时间变化趋势,并探讨了其变化原因。1961—2011年西北旱区年均ET0为1100.4 mm/a,但存在空间变异,低值出现在黄土高原南部区域,高值出现在西北部沿东南-西北方向的条带上。ET0整体呈不显著的上升趋势,但64和36个站点分别呈显著的上升和下降趋势;西北旱区ET0发生突变的年份东部较西部晚。ET0的时空变异是气象因子时空变化的组合效应,ET0对相对湿度和最高温度的变化最敏感,但过去50a ET0变化中风速和最高温度的贡献率最大。西北旱区ET0的变化发生了重要改变,由2000年以前的下降趋势转变为目前的上升趋势,可能加剧该区的水资源短缺状况,需引起足够的重视。     

Transpiration in a eucalypt plantation and a savanna in Venezuela

In Venezuela 30,000?km² of land is covered by savannas, of which 410,000?ha have been planted with several species and hybrids of Eucalyptus for lumber and pulp production. Popular concern about possible diminutions in water availability of reservoirs near eucalypt plantations prompted our interest in measuring water use by these trees. Since these savannas are markedly seasonal, the response of species to seasonal drought is important. We aimed to compare the seasonal changes in single-leaf and whole-plant transpiration in a seasonally dry savanna with that of trees of E. urophylla in an experimental plantation. We also examined the seasonal changes in xylem water potential and stomatal response to air water-vapour saturation deficit (D). Transpiration in eucalypts and the dominant savanna species Trachypogon vestitus and Curatella americana was evaluated using measurements of leaf gas exchange in all three species, sap flux in eucalypts, microclimatic variables and allometric and photometric determinations of green area. In E. urophylla and T. vestitus, but not in C. americana, stomatal conductance (g _s) proved sensitive to D. Integrated values of daily courses of transpiration rate were scaled to one ha in a preliminary approach to estimating ecosystem transpiration (E _ha). The E _ha of the savanna (the sum of E _ha of T. vestitus and C. americana) was on average 2.4 times that of eucalypts during the daytime; when nocturnal eucalypt transpiration was included, the value was 1.9. The evapotranspiration calculated by the Penman–Montieth equation (ET_c) of eucalypts was lower than the savanna all year round. The reference crop ET (ET_o) varied little throughout the seasons, the highest value occurring in March. The ratio E _ha/ET_o for the savanna was on average near one during the dry season and almost two during the rainy season; the corresponding value for E. urophylla was 0.6 for both seasons. The ratio E _ha/ET_c was on average 0.8 for the species and the savanna. The cumulative E _ha for the days of measurements was higher in the savanna than in the eucalypts during the daytime (39.8 and 17.3?mm, respectively), as was the cumulative ET_c (37.5 vs. 20.3?mm). Measured and calculated cumulative ET in eucalypts, including nocturnal values, were 22.0 and 28.4?mm, respectively. At the leaf level, both eucalypts and trees of C. americana apparently may have accessed water from deep horizons, since their values of Ψ changed less seasonally than in T. vestitus. At the ecosystem level, the species that presented the largest changes in transpiration was T. vestitus, which markedly increased savanna transpiration during the rainy season. Our results suggest that, for the days of this study, and considering the environmental conditions of the ecosystems studied, the type of measurements and the scaling procedures, stands of E. urophylla transpire less water than the savanna.     

黑河中游春小麦需水量空间分布

合理估计春小麦的需水量(ET_c)是进行干旱区水资源配置的有效方法,利用黑河中游14个气象站1970-2009年的逐日气象资料,应用Penman-Monteith公式估算各站点的参考作物蒸散量,并根据春小麦生长期的作物系数,在地理信息系统(GIS)技术支持下得出黑河中游春小麦需水量的空间分布及变化趋势。结果表明:1970-2009年黑河中游春小麦作物需水量整体分布具有从南向北递增的趋势,全生长期需水量在573-781 mm之间;高台、张掖、临泽、民乐、山丹、酒泉的春小麦需水量分别为731.26、686.88、598.24、728.89、719.77、713.59 mm,其中生长中期需水量最大,分别占全生长期的51.67%、51.11%、50.96%、51.24%、50.83%和50.77%;日平均气温、日照时数、风速、降水量、最小相对湿度和各因子的影响力由大到小分别占总影响力的57.29%、26.92%、15.15%、1.41%和0.78%。     

"蒸发悖论"在秦岭南北地区的探讨

潜在蒸散量(ET0)是大气蒸发的估计值,已经广泛应用于灌溉管理和无实测蒸发资料地区的估算.分析ET0的时空变化是研究水资源对气候变化响应的基础工作,同时对于农业水资源的优化利用也具有重要意义.根据秦岭南北47个气象站1960-2011年逐日数据,利用FAO Penman-Monteith公式计算出各站的潜在蒸散量(ET0),研究了气温、降水与ET0之间的长期变化趋势关系,对导致ET0下降的主要原因进行了讨论,着重对秦岭南北地区是否存在“蒸发悖论”进行验证.结果表明:(1)秦岭南北整体气温经历了先降后升的变化过程,1993年为突变年份,1960-1993年的降温速率和1994-2011年的升温速率均表现出由南向北递减的规律,1960-2011年整体升温速率由北向南递减.(2)1979年和1993年是ET0变化的转折点,以1979和1993为界ET0经历了“升—降—降”的变化阶段.1960-1979年仅汉水流域和巴巫谷地存在“蒸发悖论”现象,1980-1993、1994-2011和1960-2011年3个时段区域整体和各子区均发现了“蒸发悖论”现象.秋季后18a和52a整体以及冬季前34a和52a整体均存在“蒸发悖论”现象,冬季最为明显.(3)近52年整体降水表现出不显著的下降趋势,相较于年尺度,夏季降水与ET0逆向变化趋势更为明显.(4)年尺度上,太阳辐射(日照时数)下降引起的潜热通量减少是造成ET0下降即“蒸发悖论”现象的主要原因.季节尺度,春季ET0下降的主导因素为风速,其它季节均为太阳辐射(日照时数).     

Separating the effects of climate and vegetation on evapotranspiration along a successional chronosequence in the southeastern US

We combined Eddy‐covariance measurements with a linear perturbation analysis to isolate the relative contribution of physical and biological drivers on evapotranspiration (ET) in three ecosystems representing two end‐members and an intermediate stage of a successional gradient in the southeastern US (SE). The study ecosystems, an abandoned agricultural field [old field (OF)], an early successional planted pine forest (PP), and a late‐successional hardwood forest (HW), exhibited differential sensitivity to the wide range of climatic and hydrologic conditions encountered over the 4‐year measurement period, which included mild and severe droughts and an ice storm. ET and modeled transpiration differed by as much as 190 and 270 mm yr^?1, respectively, between years for a given ecosystem. Soil water supply, rather than atmospheric demand, was the principal external driver of interannual ET differences. ET at OF was sensitive to climatic variability, and results showed that decreased leaf area index (L) under mild and severe drought conditions reduced growing season (GS) ET (ET_GS) by ca. 80 mm compared with a year with normal precipitation. Under wet conditions, higher intrinsic stomatal conductance (g_s) increased ET_GS by 50 mm. ET at PP was generally larger than the other ecosystems and was highly sensitive to climate; a 50 mm decrease in ET_GS due to the loss of L from an ice storm equaled the increase in ET from high precipitation during a wet year. In contrast, ET at HW was relatively insensitive to climatic variability. Results suggest that recent management trends toward increasing the land‐cover area of PP‐type ecosystems in the SE may increase the sensitivity of ET to climatic variability.     

新疆杨边材贮存水分对单株液流通量的影响

树木体内贮存水分量的大小及其参与液流循环的程度被认为是树木抵御干旱胁迫的重要机制之一.以我国北方广泛适生的新疆杨为研究对象,利用热扩散技术(TDP)分别监测了树冠基部、树杆基部处液流通量,并结合同步气象观测,分析了树杆不同高度处液流通量与大气蒸发潜力(ET0)间的关系,发现:冠基部的液流通量(Qu)是估算新疆杨单株液流通量可靠的指标,试验期间(6-9月)典型晴天日Qu日平均值为(7.61±0.65) L/d,比云天、阴天分别高0.41和2.71 L/d.新疆杨杆基部液流通量(Qd)在不同季节变化较大,在前3个月的典型晴天日,Qd小于Qu,树木处于失水过程,但在8月下旬连续多日降雨后迅速增加而反超,新疆杨能通过这种方式缓解季节间的水分亏缺,维持水分的总体平衡.在8月下旬连续多日降雨、土壤水分得到有效改善后,Qd占全天液流总量的比例由先前的31.98％-35.36％下降到6.72％-7.99％,夜间液流成为补偿与缓解日间水分亏缺的重要方式.在整个生长季内,新疆杨体内经历了水分补充(6月)—失水(7、8月份)—再补充(9月)的过程.ET0是评价液流环境驱动效应可靠的综合变量,建立基于Logistic方程的模型可通过ET0较好的估算Qu,估算新疆杨Qu的上限约为7.82L/d.分析显示当ET0超过5mm/d时,Qu、Qd均不再随ET0的增加而增加或有下降,显示了树木主动保护、抵御干旱的策略.8月下旬连续降雨使得新疆杨蒸腾量占大气蒸发潜力的比例(T/ET0)由先前的0.32增加到之后的0.47,可以看出土壤水分改善对液流量的贡献较大.     

Multilayer perceptron neural network based models for prediction of the rainfall and reference crop evapotranspiration for sub-humid climate of Dapoli,Ratnagiri District,India

Rainfall and reference crop evapotranspiration (ET_o) are two important climatic parameters pertaining to agriculture production. Rainfall displays variability whereas reference crop evapotranspiration is nonlinear dynamic and complex phenomena. Reference crop evapotranspiration is an important component in calculation of crop water requirements, climatological and hydrological studies. In the present study, eight independent models are developed by using widely employed artificial intelligence (AI) formalism, namely, multilayer perceptron-artificial neural network (MLP-ANN). The proposed models predict two important weather parameters, viz. rainfall and reference crop evapotranspiration (ET_o) using meteorological data of 34 calendar years (1983–2016) at Dapoli, District Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, India. The input space of the models consists of six climatic variables, namely, maximum temperature (T_max), minimum temperature (T_min), maximum relative humidity (RH_max), minimum relative humidity (RH_min), wind speed (WS), and sunshine duration (SSD). The high correlation coefficient (CC) values (0.900 to 0.957), and low root mean square error (RMSE) values (0.543 to 22.057) for both training along with test data set indicate very good prediction accuracy and generalization performance of the proposed models. Significant features of this study are (i) it is first instance where in MLP-ANN based models are developed for the rainfall and ET_o prediction for meteorological data at Dapoli, Dist. Ratnagiri, Maharashtra, India. (ii) MLP-ANN modeling formalism is found to be an efficient tool for ET_o prediction, and the developed models can be gainfully utilized for the further prediction of similar weather parameters in future.     

Cigarette smoke upregulates rat coronary artery endothelin receptors in vivo

Background

Cigarette smoking is a strong cardiovascular risk factor and endothelin (ET) receptors are related to coronary artery diseases. The present study established an in vivo secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure model and investigated the hypothesis that cigarette smoke induces ET receptor upregulation in rat coronary arteries and its possible underlying mechanisms.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Rats were exposed to SHS for 200 min daily for 8 weeks. The coronary arteries were isolated and examined. The vasoconstriction was studied by a sensitive myograph. The expression of mRNA and protein for receptors was examined by real-time PCR, Western blot and immunofluorescence. Compared to fresh air exposure, SHS increased contractile responses mediated by endothelin type A (ET_A) and type B (ET_B) receptors in coronary arteries. In parallel, the expression of mRNA and protein for ET_A and ET_B receptors of smoke exposed rats were higher than that of animals exposed to fresh air, suggesting that SHS upregulates ET_A and ET_B receptors in coronary arteries in vivo. Immunofluorescence staining showed that the enhanced receptor expression was localized to the smooth muscle cells of coronary arteries. The protein levels of phosphorylated (p)-Raf-1 and p-ERK1/2 in smoke exposed rats were significantly higher than in control rats, demonstrating that SHS induces the activation of the Raf/ERK/MAPK pathway. Treatment with Raf-1 inhibitor GW5074 suppressed SHS-induced enhanced contraction mediated by ET_A receptors, and inhibited the elevated mRNA and protein levels of ET_A and ET_B receptors caused by SHS. The results of correlation and regression analysis showed that phosphorylation of Raf and ERK1/2 were independent determinants to affect protein expression of ET_B and ET_A receptors.

Conclusions/Significance

Cigarette smoke upregulates ET_B and ET_A receptors in rat coronary artery, which is associated with the activation of the Raf/ERK/MAPK pathway.     

塔里木盆地南缘旱生芦苇生态特征与水盐因子关系

选择位于塔里木盆地南缘极端干旱区的克里雅河流域于田绿洲为靶区,结合经典统计学和冗余分析技术,研究了旱生芦苇生态特征与水盐因子的分布规律及相互关系。统计学分析显示:芦苇沿河岸至荒漠方向株高、盖度和地上生物量减少、地下生物量增加,水分与土壤盐分也呈现一定的梯度变化规律。冗余分析结果表明:水分为芦苇生态特征变化的关键驱动因子,地下水埋深和土壤水分与芦苇的生态特征呈现极显著的相关关系,钠吸附比、全盐与芦苇的生态特征呈现显著的相关关系,其他指标与芦苇生态特征的相关性均不显著。水盐因子对芦苇生态特征影响的重要性排序为地下水埋深土壤水分钠吸附比全盐HCO-3pH值Cl-/SO2-4。综合水盐要素,水分对芦苇生态特征的影响大于盐分。     

Evapotranspiration over the Grassland Field in the Liudaogou Basin of the Loess Plateau,China

Severe desertification on the Loess Plateau of China since the 17th century as a result of improper land use has caused critical soil erosion and water shortages in the lower reaches of the Yellow River. To prevent further soil erosion, it is very important to cover the bare land surface with natural vegetation. Evapotranspiration (ET) over the grassland (Stipa bungeana) in Shenmu County of the Loess Plateau during the growing season is estimated to be about 1 mm day^–1, and the ratio of ET to reference Evapotranspiration (ET/ET₀) is below 0.3. Evaporation from the bare soil surface simulated by a three-layer soil model is less than ET; that is, ET is 1.5 times greater than evaporation from the soil surface during the growing season.This study examines the relationships among the surface resistance r_s in the Penman–Monteith equation, solar radiation, vapor-pressure deficit, temperature, wind speed, and soil water content. Surface resistance (r_s) is strongly affected by the vapor-pressure deficit and soil water content.     

Effect of different macrophytes in abating nitrogen from a synthetic wastewater

An experiment conducted in an unheated glasshouse from October 2006 to March 2008 studied the efficiency of different macrophytes in reducing NO₃-N and NH₄-N concentrations and loads in synthetic wastewaters. The experimental setup consisted of plastic tanks, filled with gravel and vegetated with Carex elata All., Juncus effusus L., Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin., Typhoides arundinacea L. Moench (syn Phalaris arundinacea L.) var. picta and Typha latifolia L. There was also a control without vegetation. From January to July, a solution of 50–60 ppm of NH₄-N and NO₃-N was applied monthly; then the input concentration was doubled. The total load at the end of the experimental period was 70.4 g/m² of NO₃-N and 67.3 of NH₄-N. At the end of each month, water was discharged from the tanks and analysed to determine the two nitrogen forms. At the end of the experiment, 33 g/m² of total N (almost 24% of applied N) had disappeared in the control. Among species, the highest abatement was detected in T. latifolia (72 g/m², almost 52% of applied N) and the lowest in J. effusus (35%).A weekly chemical analysis in July showed that a large amount of NH₄-N quickly disappeared in all treatments, while NO₃-N only decreased in the vegetated tanks. In December, NH₄-N had similar dynamics, while NO₃-N increased.All water volumes entering and exiting the tanks were measured in order to evaluate evapotranspiration. T. latifolia showed the highest water consumption, reaching a cumulative value of above 1000 mm.At the end of the experiment, J. effusus presented the highest amount of nitrogen stored in the aerial parts (5.63 g/m²) and T. latifolia the lowest (1.92 g/m²).     

Evapotranspiration by Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms and Typha latifolia L.

Evapotranspiration (E) by Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms and Typha latifolia L. growing in 5.77-m² tanks and evaporation (E₀) from control tanks were measured over a 6-month period at Auburn, Alabama (32.5° N latitude). The E/E₀ ratios for E. crassipes and T. latifolia were 1.31–2.52 (mean = 1.75) and 1.05–2.50 (mean = 1.62), respectively. Evidence is presented which demonstrates that E/E₀ values were similar to those which occur in natural populations of the two species. Both plant characteristics and meteorological variables influenced evapotranspiration. Equations for estimating evapotranspiration were E_Ec = (4.19 + (7.32 × 10⁻⁸) S² + (0.00035 × 10⁻³)H²)D R² = 0.92E_Tl = (1.43 + (2.79 × 10⁻¹⁵)S⁴ + 1.44L)D R² = 0.93 where E_Ec and E_Tl are monthly water loss in mm/month for E. crassipes and T. latifolia, respectively; S is the average daily solar radiation in W m⁻² integrated over 24 h for the month; H is plant height in m; L is leaf area index (dimensionless); and D is the number of days in the month.     

Evidence for photoenzymatically repairable, lethal "non-dimer" photoproducts, formed in E. coli cells by 365-nm radiation or by sunlight greater than 360 nm.

Three pairs of E. coli strains with different dark-repair potentials, viz. H/r30 and H/r30-R, H_s30 H_s30-R, CSR 603 and AB 2480, have been investigated for their survival after exposure to 254-nm and 365-nm radiation. Each pair consists of a non-photorepairable (phr^?) and a photorepairable (phr⁺) strain of otherwise identical or similar genotype. At 254 nm, the mean inactivation fluence (F_0.37) is for the dark-repair proficient phr^? strain (H/r30) 300–750 times greater than for the completely dark-repair deficient phr^tt- strain (CSR 603), but at 365 nm the F_0.37's differ by a factor of only 5–10. Comparison of survival curves of phr^? and phr⁺ strains indicates that, at all three levels of dark-repair potential, lethal damage resulting from 365-nm exposure is extensively photorepaired by the same wavelength. Qualitatively similar effects were observed with sunlight from which all wavelengths < 360 nm were filtered out. Furthermore, we have shown that fluences of 365-nm radiation used in our experiments do not damage the enzymatic dark-repair systems themselves. These results seem compatible with one another only if one assumes that photoenzymatic repair is capable of abolishing lethal DNA damage other than the common types of cyclobutane dipyrimidines occurring after 254-nm irradiation.     

Electrochemistry of cytochrome c immobilized on cardiolipin-modified electrodes: A probe for protein–lipid interactions

Electrochemistry of cytochrome c (cyt c) immobilized on a cardiolipin (CL)/phosphatidylcholine (PC) film supported on a glassy carbon electrode was investigated using variable-frequency AC voltammetry. At low ionic strength, we observed two redox-active subpopulations characterized by distinct values of potential (E_1/2) and electron transfer rate constant (k_ET). At high ionic strength, only one subpopulation was detected, consistent with the existence of very stable cyt c–CL adducts, most probably formed by hydrophobic interactions between the protein and the fatty acid (FA) chains carried by CL. This subpopulation exhibits a comparatively high k_ET value (> 300 s^− 1) apparently changing with the structure of the FA chains of CL, i.e. 18:2(n − 6) or 14:0. Our study suggests that electrochemistry can be a useful technique for probing protein–lipid interactions, and more particularly the role played by the specific structure of the FA chains of CL on cyt c binding.     

Juvenility and flowering of Brunonia australis (Goodeniaceae) and Calandrinia sp. (Portulacaceae) in relation to vernalization and daylength

Background and Aims

The time at which plants are transferred to floral inductive conditions affects the onset of flowering and plant morphology, due to juvenility. Plants of Brunonia australis and Calandrinia sp. were used to investigate whether Australian native ephemeral species show a distinct juvenile phase that can be extended to increase vegetative growth and flowering.

Methods

The juvenile phase was quantified by transferring seedlings from less inductive (short day and 30/20°C) to inductive (vernalization or long day) conditions at six different plant ages ranging from 4 to 35 d after seed germination. An increase in days to first visible floral bud and leaf number were used to signify the end of juvenility.

Key Results

Brunonia australis was receptive to floral inductive long day conditions about 18–22 d after seed germination, whereas plants aged 4–35 d appeared vernalization sensitive. Overall, transferring plants of B. australis from short to long day conditions reduced the time to anthesis compared with vernalization or constant short day conditions. Calandrinia sp. showed a facultative requirement for vernalization and an insensitive phase was not detected. Floral bud and branch production increased favourably as plant age at time of transfer to inductive conditions increased. Younger plants showed the shortest crop production time.

Conclusions

Both species can perceive the vernalization floral stimulus from a very young age, whereas the photoperiodic stimulus is perceived by B. australis after a period of vegetative growth. However, extending the juvenile phase can promote foliage development and enhance flower production of both species.