Coral recruitment and early benthic community development on several materials used in the construction of artificial reefs and breakwaters

Artificial reefs are increasingly being promoted as a means to mitigate impacts from human activities in coastal urban areas. Coastal defense structures such as breakwaters are becoming recognized as large-scale artificial reefs that support abundant and diverse marine communities and play important roles in coastal ecology and management. However, there is limited understanding of how substrate materials used to construct artificial reefs or breakwaters can influence the development of habitat-forming benthic organisms. To assess the influence of substrata on coral recruitment and overall benthic community development, we deployed standard-size tiles of materials used in the construction of breakwaters and artificial reefs (concrete, gabbro, granite, and sandstone), along with terra-cotta for comparative purposes, at two breakwaters (DDD, PRT) and two natural reef sites (NR1, NR2) in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, for one year. Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA with post-hoc Mann-Whitney U-tests were used to examine differences in coral recruitment among sites and materials. Coral recruitment was highest at the DDD (4.9 ± 0.5 recruits 100 cm^− 2), while recruitment was low and did not differ among other sites (PRT: 0.1 ± 0.04, NR1:0.3 ± 0.1, NR2: 0.1 ± 0.03 recruits 100 cm^− 2). There were significant differences in coral recruitment among materials at DDD, where gabbro had higher recruit densities than concrete and sandstone; sandstone also contained less coral recruits than terra-cotta. Variability associated with low coral recruit densities precluded significant differences among materials at other sites. Overall benthic community structure differed more as a result of differences among sites than among substrate materials. Higher community dissimilarity was observed among sites than among material in SIMPER analysis, and significant differences were only observed among sites in ANOSIM. Univariate comparison of the benthos correlated with community differences in NMS ordination also showed significant differences among sites but not material. Overall, these results indicate that site-specific differences in recruitment patterns are more important in determining early benthic community structure and coral recruitment than are differences among substrate material. However, where coral recruitment is high, these results suggest that gabbro should be used preferentially over concrete or sandstone where it is feasible, but that granite may be a suitable alternative where it is the dominant stone. Coral recruitment on terra-cotta was comparable to all materials but sandstone, supporting its continued use in recruitment studies. These results also indicate that using stone amenable to coral recruitment is unlikely to influence the wider benthic community.     

Are artificial reefs surrogates of natural habitats for corals and fish in Dubai,United Arab Emirates?

Artificial reefs are often promoted as mitigating human impacts in coastal ecosystems and enhancing fisheries; however, evidence supporting their benefits is equivocal. Such structures must be compared with natural reefs in order to assess their performance, but past comparisons typically examined artificial structures that were too small, or were immature, relative to the natural reefs. We compared coral and fish communities on two large (>400,000 m³) and mature (>25 year) artificial reefs with six natural coral patches. Coral cover was higher on artificial reefs (50%) than in natural habitats (31%), but natural coral patches contained higher species richness (29 vs. 20) and coral diversity (H′ = 2.3 vs. 1.8). Multivariate analyses indicated strong differences between coral communities in natural and artificial habitats. Fish communities were sampled seasonally for 1 year. Multivariate fish communities differed significantly among habitat types in the summer and fall, but converged in the winter and spring. Univariate analysis indicated that species richness and abundance were stable throughout the year on natural coral patches but increased significantly in the summer on artificial reefs compared with the winter and spring, explaining the multivariate changes in community structure. The increased summer abundance on artificial reefs was mainly due to adult immigration. Piscivores were much more abundant in the fall than in the winter or spring on artificial reefs, but had low and stable abundance throughout the year in natural habitats. It is likely that the decreased winter and spring abundance of fish on the artificial reefs resulted from both predation and emigration. These results indicate that large artificial reefs can support diverse and abundant coral and fish communities. However, these communities differ structurally and functionally from those in natural habitats, and they should not be considered as replacements for natural coral and fish communities.     

Community structure of stony and soft corals on vertical unplanned artificial reefs in Eilat (Red Sea): comparison to natural reefs

In many reef ecosystems, artificial reefs (AR) have become permanent additions to the area, sustaining well-developed benthic communities. Long-term studies on the development of AR coral communities are scarce, and comparisons with their natural surroundings are limited. The present study describes the stony and soft coral community structure of unplanned vertical AR in Eilat (Red Sea) that have progressed beyond the initial successional phases, and compares these to the adjacent natural reefs (NR). Coral communities were characterized using belt transects, conducted on 34- and 14-year-old unplanned AR, and on two proximate NR. Stony corals were the major component in the NR, while soft corals, mainly Nephtheidae, accounted for up to 90% of the total living coverage in the AR. This was attributed to physical and biological features associated with the ARs vertical orientation, which was absent in the NR, and to the life history traits of these soft corals. Community differences between the two AR were related to structural stability and age. The results suggest that AR may increase local heterogeneity and space availability by adding novel habitats, increasing production and elevating species diversity in the surroundings.Communicated by Biological Editor H.R. Lasker     

河北唐山曹妃甸-乐亭海域自然牡蛎礁分布及生态意义

牡蛎礁是生态系统服务价值最高的海洋生境之一,目前我国自然牡蛎礁分布和生态现状的基础信息仍然较缺乏。于2019年3月对河北唐山曹妃甸-乐亭海域自然牡蛎礁的空间分布、生态环境、牡蛎生物学和礁体动物群落开展了调查,并评估了该牡蛎礁的生态系统服务价值。该海域自然牡蛎礁分布于溯河(SR)、溯河口海域(SRE)和捞鱼尖海域(LYJ),总面积约15 km~2,是目前我国面积最大的自然牡蛎礁。基于96个牡蛎样品的16S rDNA检测,共识别出92个长牡蛎Crassostrea gigas、3个侏儒牡蛎Nanostrea fluctigera和1个巨蛎属未知种Crassostrea sp.。自然牡蛎礁中牡蛎平均密度介于104—3912个/m~2之间,不同礁区间牡蛎平均密度的大小排序为：SRE>SR>LYJ (P<0.05),平均生物量的大小排序为：SR>SRE>LYJ (P<0.05),平均壳高的大小排序为：SR>SRE=LYJ (P<0.05)。在该牡蛎礁内记录到49种礁体动物,其中软体动物16种、节肢动物16种、环节动物8种、棘皮动物5种、腔肠动物2种...     

Towards an understanding of resilience in isolated coral reefs

In 1998, seawater temperature anomalies led to unprecedented levels of coral bleaching on reefs worldwide. We studied the direct effects of this thermal event on benthic communities and its indirect effects on their associated coral reef fish communities at a group of remote reefs off NW Australia. Long‐term monitoring of benthic and fish assemblages on these reefs allowed us to compare the responses of these communities to coral bleaching using a data series that included 4 years before, and 6 years following, this bleaching event. While bleaching mortality was evident to >30 m depth, it was patchy among the shallower survey sites with decreases in live coral cover ranging from 30% to 90% across seven surveyed locations Within 2 years of the bleaching, hard coral recovery had begun at all sites and by 2003 reef‐wide coral cover had increased to ～39% of its preimpact levels. We exploited this pattern of differential survival of corals among sites, the associated changes in these benthic communities, and their patterns of recovery, to better understand links between benthic community dynamics and their associated fish communities. Temporal changes in the resident fish communities strongly reflected the differential shifts in the benthic communities, but were lagged by 12–18 months. Five years after the bleaching event, the fish communities on five of the seven surveyed locations showed evidence of recovery, however, none had regained their preimpact structures. Analyses of these communities by taxonomic family revealed a range of responses to the disturbance reflective of their life‐histories and trophic and habitat affiliations. The slow but recognizable recovery of this isolated reef system has parallels with other relatively isolated systems that displayed resilience to the 1998 bleaching event, e.g. the Chagos archipelago, but it also contrasts sharply with low levels of resilience documented in other isolated reef systems subject to the same disturbance, e.g. the Seychelles. In this context, our results highlight the significant knowledge gaps remaining in understanding the resilience of these ecosystems to disturbance.     

Newly dominant benthic invertebrates reshape competitive networks on contemporary Caribbean reefs

Competition is a fundamental process structuring ecological communities. On coral reefs, space is a highly contested resource and the outcomes of spatial competition can dictate community composition. In the Caribbean, reefs are increasingly dominated by non-scleractinian species like sponges, gorgonians, and zoanthids, yet there is a paucity of data on interactions between these increasingly common organisms and historically dominant corals. Here, we investigated interactions among these groups of sessile benthic invertebrates to better understand the role of spatial competition in shaping benthic communities on Caribbean reefs. We coupled surveys of competitive interactions on the reef with a common garden competition experiment to determine the frequency and outcome of interference competition among eight focal species. We found that competitive interactions were pervasive on Florida reefs, with 60% of sessile benthic invertebrates interacting with at least one other invertebrate. Increasingly common non-scleractinian species were some of the most abundant taxa and consistently outcompeted the contemporarily common scleractinian species Porites porites and Siderastrea siderea. The encrusting gorgonian, Erythropodium caribaeorum, was the most aggressive species, reducing the live area of its competitors on average 42% ± 7.04 (SE) over the course of 5 months. Surprisingly, the most aggressive species declined in size when competing, while some less aggressive species were able to increase or maintain area, suggesting a trade-off between aggressiveness and growth. Our findings suggest that competition among sessile invertebrates is likely to remain an important process in structuring coral reefs, but that the optimal strategies for maintaining space on the benthos may change. Importantly, many non-scleractinian species that now dominate reefs appear to be superior competitors, potentially increasing the stress on corals on contemporary reefs.

     

Black reefs: iron-induced phase shifts on coral reefs

The Line Islands are calcium carbonate coral reef platforms located in iron-poor regions of the central Pacific. Natural terrestrial run-off of iron is non-existent and aerial deposition is extremely low. However, a number of ship groundings have occurred on these atolls. The reefs surrounding the shipwreck debris are characterized by high benthic cover of turf algae, macroalgae, cyanobacterial mats and corallimorphs, as well as particulate-laden, cloudy water. These sites also have very low coral and crustose coralline algal cover and are call black reefs because of the dark-colored benthic community and reduced clarity of the overlying water column. Here we use a combination of benthic surveys, chemistry, metagenomics and microcosms to investigate if and how shipwrecks initiate and maintain black reefs. Comparative surveys show that the live coral cover was reduced from 40 to 60% to <10% on black reefs on Millennium, Tabuaeran and Kingman. These three sites are relatively large (>0.75 km²). The phase shift occurs rapidly; the Kingman black reef formed within 3 years of the ship grounding. Iron concentrations in algae tissue from the Millennium black reef site were six times higher than in algae collected from reference sites. Metagenomic sequencing of the Millennium Atoll black reef-associated microbial community was enriched in iron-associated virulence genes and known pathogens. Microcosm experiments showed that corals were killed by black reef rubble through microbial activity. Together these results demonstrate that shipwrecks and their associated iron pose significant threats to coral reefs in iron-limited regions.     

Oyster Reef Restoration in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Effect of Artificial Substrate and Age on Nekton and Benthic Macroinvertebrate Assemblage Use

In the northern Gulf of Mexico (GOM), reefs built by eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica, provide critical habitat within shallow estuaries, and recent efforts have focused on restoring reefs to benefit nekton and benthic macroinvertebrates. We compared nekton and benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages at historic, newly created (<5 years) and old (>6 years) shell and rock substrate reefs. Using crab traps, gill‐nets, otter trawls, cast nets, and benthic macroinvertebrate collectors, 20 shallow reefs (<5 m) in the northern GOM were sampled throughout the summer of 2011. We compared nekton and benthic assemblage abundance, diversity and composition across reef types. Except for benthic macroinvertebrate abundance, which was significantly higher on old rock reefs as compared to historic reefs, all reefs were similar to historic reefs, suggesting created reefs provide similar support of nekton and benthic assemblages as historic reefs. To determine refuge value of oyster structure for benthic macroinvertebrates compared to bare bottom, we tested preferences of juvenile crabs across depth and refuge complexity in the presence and absence of adult blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Juveniles were more likely to use deep water with predators present only when provided oyster structure. Provision of structural material to support and sustain development of benthic and mobile reef communities may be the most important factor in determining reef value to these assemblages, with biophysical characteristics related to reef location influencing assemblage patterns in areas with structure; if so, appropriately locating created reefs is critical.     

Forecasting intensifying disturbance effects on coral reefs

Anticipating future changes of an ecosystem's dynamics requires knowledge of how its key communities respond to current environmental regimes. The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) is under threat, with rapid changes of its reef‐building hard coral (HC) community structure already evident across broad spatial scales. While several underlying relationships between HC and multiple disturbances have been documented, responses of other benthic communities to disturbances are not well understood. Here we used statistical modelling to explore the effects of broad‐scale climate‐related disturbances on benthic communities to predict their structure under scenarios of increasing disturbance frequency. We parameterized a multivariate model using the composition of benthic communities estimated by 145,000 observations from the northern GBR between 2012 and 2017. During this time, surveyed reefs were variously impacted by two tropical cyclones and two heat stress events that resulted in extensive HC mortality. This unprecedented sequence of disturbances was used to estimate the effects of discrete versus interacting disturbances on the compositional structure of HC, soft corals (SC) and algae. Discrete disturbances increased the prevalence of algae relative to HC while the interaction between cyclones and heat stress was the main driver of the increase in SC relative to algae and HC. Predictions from disturbance scenarios included relative increases in algae versus SC that varied by the frequency and types of disturbance interactions. However, high uncertainty of compositional changes in the presence of several disturbances shows that responses of algae and SC to the decline in HC needs further research. Better understanding of the effects of multiple disturbances on benthic communities as a whole is essential for predicting the future status of coral reefs and managing them in the light of new environmental regimes. The approach we develop here opens new opportunities for reaching this goal.     

Effects of accumulations of sediments and drift algae on recruitment of sessile organisms associated with oyster reefs

Increases in sediment and drift algae accumulations have caused degradation of coastal lagoons worldwide. It is well known that these factors are stressors of seagrass beds, sediment fauna and coral reefs. However, little is known about the impacts on temperate hard-bottom assemblages within soft-bottom lagoons. To test if accumulations of sediment and drift algae (stress) affected recruitment of sessile oyster reef organisms, we constructed cages in Hog Island Bay, Virginia that trapped drifting macroalgae (≈ 2.7 kg WW m²) and facilitated sedimentation (≈ 7 mm per 2-3 month). The stress treatments and unstressed controls were placed in front, between, and behind reefs (position) to represent wave exposed (≈ 0.3 m, windy conditions), current exposed (≈ 0.2 m s^− 1, peak tide) and protected (≈ 0 m, 0.0 m s^− 1) habitats. The percentage cover of recruited taxa onto bricks was mapped 4 times during a 1-year period. There were strong significant effects of stress on the total assemblage, plant (but not animal) richness, total plant and animal cover, and cover of the most common taxa. Unstressed bricks had high plant richness, high animal and plant cover, and high cover of the oyster Crassostrea virginica, the alien algae Gracilaria vermiculophylla and Codium fragile, the alga Agardhiella subulata, and high to medium cover of the opportunistic algae Ulva curvata and Enteromorpha spp. In comparison, sediment-stressed bricks had low plant richness, low animal and plant cover, and low cover of C. virginica, G. vermiculophylla, C. fragile, A. subulata, U. curvata and Enteromorpha spp. Similarly, algae-stressed bricks also had low cover of animals, C. virginica, G. vermiculophylla, C. fragile, and A. subulata, but intermediate plant richness and plant cover and high cover of U. curvata and Enteromorpha spp. Although reef position caused significant multivariate results, this factor was clearly less important than the stress factor. Our study shows that accumulations of sediments and drift algae have an adverse impact on sessile temperate reef organisms, reducing richness and abundance, but favoring a few small opportunistic taxa. As the reef-generating oysters themselves performed poorly under these stressors, the long-term impact of the causes of these stressors, eutrophication and urbanization, is likely to be diminished reefs with cascading adverse effects on sessile reef organisms.     

Co-culture induces alignment in engineered cardiac constructs via MMP-2 expression

Cardiac tissue engineering has been limited by the inability to recreate native myocardial structural features. We hypothesized that heart cell elongation and alignment in 3D engineered cardiac constructs would be enhanced by using physiologic ratios of cardiomyocytes (CM) and cardiac fibroblasts (CF) via matrix metalloprotease (MMP)-dependent mechanisms. Co-cultured CM and CF constructs were compared to CM-enriched constructs using either basal media or media with a general MMP inhibitor for 8 days. Co-cultured constructs exhibited significantly increased cell alignment (p < 0.0002), which was eliminated by MMP inhibition. Co-cultured constructs expressed substantial active MMP-2 protein that was not present in CM-enriched constructs, increased pro-MMP-2 (p < 0.001), and reduced pro-MMP-9 (p < 0.001) expression. Apoptosis was decreased by co-culture (p < 0.05), independent of MMP inhibition. These results demonstrated that co-culture of CF in physiologic ratios within engineered cardiac constructs improved cell elongation and alignment via increased MMP-2 expression and activation, and also improved viability independent of MMP activity.     

History,ecology and trends for artificial reefs of the Ligurian sea,Italy

From 1970 to the present 10 artificial reef sites have been developed in coastal waters of the Ligurian Sea, Italy. They range from Ventimiglia, in the west, to La Spezia, in the east, with the largest and best known reef complex being located in the Gulf of Genoa at Loano and consisting of 2,745 m³, about 5,200 t of material and covering a surface of 350 ha. Design and construction practices have advanced from an initial, unsuccessful effort that used automobile bodies (now banned) to current use of custom-designed concrete modules deployed systematically. Funding for reef construction has come since 1983. The earliest aim of reefs was as a physical barrier to protect habitats against illegal otter trawl fishing. Newer objectives include habitat restoration, enhancement of biodiversity and fishing catch, and research to test materials and designs for physical and ecological performance. Reefs also functions as environmental observation stations, with the invasive species Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C. Agardh, being recorded on the reef at Alassio. For some Artificial Reefs (Ars), benthic organisms and fishes, settlement, biomass and development of community are recorded. In Loano AR, immersed in 1986, more than 150 algae species are recorded, more than 200 benthic animal species and 78 species (87 taxa) of fishes. Fifty-six species (61 taxa) of fishes are recorded by visual census, the others are caught only by trammel net and long line. Trammel catches at Loano are on average about 2.32 kg/100 m net. Comparisons among ARs reveal that age of the reef, location and presence of seagrass meadows are crucial for success. An indication of functional equivalence between ARs and natural rocky reefs is seen if both fish and sessile macrobenthos are compared. After 34 years of investigation a database comprising at least one hundred scientific articles based on research programs of up to 15 years, and other unpublished reports, provides information to guide future planning of reefs. On the basis of acquired experience, some management advice is suggested and the best design for the basic module in the Ligurian sea is described. The role of ARs, providing protection of coastal environment against the illegal otter trawling, nursery, microhabitat and food supply, while increasing biodiversity, biomass of benthos and fishes, and facilities for ecotourism, is outlined.

Inconsistent effects of reefs on different size classes of macrofauna in adjacent sand habitats

In soft-sediment communities near reefs, a variety of patterns have been described with distance from the reef edge. Various studies have observed contrasting patterns and one study has reported different patterns for different size classes of macrofauna. This study in northeastern New Zealand obtained samples from 24 randomly allocated sites across three locations in a large-scale mensurative sampling design. At each location, there was a manipulation of reef-associated predator populations provided by established marine reserves. A concurrent study using the same sites found large macrofauna (> 4 mm) to vary with distance from the reef and relative to predator density. The present study sampled small-bodied infauna (< 4 mm and > 0.5 mm), which was also predicted to change with distance from the reef and predator density. In contrast to patterns found for larger fauna and to previous studies of small macrofauna, no consistent patterns were found for small-bodied infauna. These results suggest that models of community structure need to consider different size classes of macrofauna separately and that multiple sampling methods will assist their investigation. The ‘haloes’ in small-bodied macrofauna around reefs may not be as widespread or consistent as previous studies have suggested, particularly in mobile sediments on open coasts.     

Grazing pressure of herbivorous coral reef fishes on low coral-cover reefs

The impact of grazing by herbivorous fishes (Acanthuridae, Scaridae, and Pomacentridae) on low coral-cover reefs was assessed by measuring rates of benthic algal production and consumption on inshore and offshore reefs in the upper Florida Keys. Algal production rates, determined in situ with caged and uncaged experimental plates, were low (mean 1.05 g C m⁻² day⁻¹) and similar among reef types. Algal consumption rates were estimated using two different models, a detailed model incorporating fish bite rates and algal yield-per-bite for one species extrapolated to a guild-wide value, and a general regression relating fish biomass to algal consumption. Algal consumption differed among reef types: a majority of algal production was consumed on offshore reefs (55–100%), whereas consumption on inshore patch reefs was 31–51%. Spatial variation in algal consumption was driven by differences in herbivorous fish species composition, density, and size-structure among reef types. Algal consumption rates also varied temporally due to seasonal declines in bite rates and intermittent presence of large-bodied, vagile, schooling species. Spatial coherence of benthic community structure and temporal stability of algal turf over 3 years suggests that grazing intensity is currently sufficient to limit further spread of macroalgal cover on these low coral-cover reefs, but not to exclude it from the system.     

2d:4d, sex steroid hormones and human psychological sex differences

Studies on 2d:4d, the ratio between the second and the fourth digit, as a possible indicator of prenatal androgen exposure, have failed to produce consistent results. This paper analyzes the relation between 2d:4d, sex steroids and well-documented sex differences in characteristics such as depression, dominance, and aggressive (ART) and non-aggressive adolescent risk-taking (NART) in a comparatively large sample of adolescent boys (N = 301, mean age: 14.4 years) and girls (N = 298, mean age: 14.3 years). Boys had on average a lower 2d:4d than girls (F = 42.15; p < 0.001). With respect to boys, controlling for age and pubertal development (PD), a small but marginally significant positive association was found between 2d:4d and total testosterone (TT) (r = 0.11; p < 0.05). In girls a significant association was found between 2d:4d and SHBG (r = 0.18; p < 0.01). However, relationships between 2d:4d and hormones depended on the phase of the menstrual cycle, with 2d:4d being negatively associated with FT (B = − 0.013; p < 0.05) once a positive association between 2d:4d and FT for girls in the mid-cycle group (B = 0.019; p < 0.01) is taken into account. With respect to sex differences in characteristics, we found evidence of a relationship between 2d:4d and depression in boys (r = − 0.14; p < 0.05) but not between 2d:4d and dominance, ART or NART. No relationships were found between 2d:4d and any of these variables in girls.     

Age composition and antioxidant enzyme activities in blood of Black Sea teleosts

Age composition and age-related trends of antioxidant enzyme activities superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (PER), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) in the blood of seven Black Sea teleosts (Carangidae, Centracanthidae, Gadidae, Mullidae, Gobiidae and Scorpaenidae) collected in marine coastal area of Sevastopol (Ukraine) were studied. In the catches the animals of 1 – 2 years of age dominated while in the Scorpaena porcus population the number of relatively elder individuals belonging to classes of 3–4 years was the highest. The trends of antioxidant enzyme activities in blood were not uniform. Three types of age-dependent responses were indicated in fish blood: 1. enzymatic activity did not change with age; 2. enzymatic activity decreased with age and 3. enzyme activity increased with age or varied unclearly. The interspecies differences of age-related enzymatic activities associated with the specificity of fish biology and ecology were indicated. Despite no clear evidence of age-related differences between fish species belonging to different ecological groups both benthic forms exhibited similar age-dependent trends of SOD and PER. The correlations between blood antioxidant enzyme activities in fish belonging to suprabenthic and benthic/pelagic groups demonstrated the intermediate values as compared to the benthic and pelagic forms. The results suggest the importance of age trends for biomarkers in fish monitoring studies.     

Potential impact of rising seawater temperature on copepods due to coastal power plants in subtropical areas

The major objective of this study is to understand the upper thermal limits and potential impact of temperature elevation on copepods caused by coastal power plants. Laboratory experiments were designed to evaluate the upper incipient lethal temperature (UILT) and critical thermal maximum (CTMax) of eight coastal copepod species collected from a subtropical bay in spring and summer. The 48h-UILT of copepods acclimatized at 16.0, 20.0, 28.0 °C were 26.4-29.1, 27.3-30.1, 32.9-36.9 °C, respectively. And the CTMax of copepods acclimatized at 28.0 °C was 35.80-41.03 °C. The UILT of copepods increased significantly with rising acclimatization temperatures, but the difference values between UILT and acclimatization temperatures decreased, which indicated that the seawater temperature elevation induced the growing mortalities of copepods with increasing natural seawater temperatures from the thermal addition of power plants. The results also showed that estuarine copepods had more tolerances to the thermal stress than those from other more stable marine environments. As to the calanoid copepod species, there was a significant negative correlation between the CTMax and body length (p < 0.01). So it seemed that the copepod species with large body size were more sensitive to the thermal addition than the smaller ones. Thus, owing to the temperature increase, the copepod species diversity might reduce and the composition of copepod communities might tend to be small-sized in natural sea areas close to the coastal power plants.     

The value and opportunity of restoring Australia's lost rock oyster reefs

Recognizing the historical loss of habitats and the value and opportunities for their recovery is essential for mobilizing habitat restoration as a solution for managing ecosystem function. Just 200 years ago, Sydney rock oysters (Saccostrea glomerata) formed extensive reef ecosystems along Australia's temperate east coast, but a century of intensive harvest and coastal change now confines S. glomerata to encrusting the hard‐intertidal surfaces of sheltered coastal waters. Despite the lack of natural reef recovery, there appears enormous potential for the restoration of intertidal S. glomerata ecosystems across Australia's east coast, with large anticipated benefits to water quality, shoreline protection, and coastal productivity. Yet, no subtidal reefs remain and the potential for subtidal restoration is a critical knowledge gap. Here, we synthesize historical, ecological, and aquaculture literature to describe a reference system for the traits of S. glomerata reefs to inform restoration targets, and outline the barriers to, and opportunities and methods for, their restoration. These reefs support extremely biodiverse and productive communities and can ameliorate the environmental stress experienced by associated communities. Rock oyster restoration, therefore, provides an ecosystem‐based strategy for assisting the adaptation of marine biodiversity to a changing climate and intensive human encroachment. Though an estimated 92% of S. glomerata ecosystems are lost, there remains great potential to restore these valuable and resilient ecosystems.     

Responses of coral reefs to increased amplitude of sea-level changes at the Mid-Pleistocene Climate Transition

We show responses of coral reefs to increased amplitude of sea-level changes at the Mid-Pleistocene Climate Transition (MPT) based on lithostratigraphic, sedimentologic and calcareous nannofossil biostratigraphic investigations on Pleistocene reef-complex deposits (Ryukyu Group) on the Motobu Peninsula, Okinawa-jima, Central Ryukyus. Our data show that reef growth started in earliest Quaternary time (1.45-1.65 Ma) and that extensive reef formation dates back to ∼ 0.8 Ma. The mode of Quaternary sedimentation changed at ∼ 0.8 Ma in the study area. Before this time, thick siliciclastics and mixed carbonate-siliciclastics accumulated, which were followed by the deposition of bioclastic sediments (detrital limestone). No indications have been found of episodic subaerial exposures in these deposits and no calcareous nannofossil biozones are lacking. Since the detrital limestone includes biogenic components characterizing fore-reef to shelf environments, the coastal areas of the northern Motobu Peninsula mostly lay in fore-reef to shelf environments for > 0.6 million years (between ∼ 0.8 Ma and 1.45-1.65 Ma), when the sediments had not been subaerially exposed due to sea-level changes characterized by relatively small amplitudes. Coral limestone that formed in the latest Early to Middle Pleistocene between 0.4 Ma and 0.8 Ma extends over the study area, ranging in elevation from 0 to 70 m. This coral limestone grades upward into fore-reef to shelf carbonates (rhodolith, Cycloclypeus-Operculina, and detrital limestones) which is in turn overlain by coral limestone. This succession, combined with configuration of the lithofacies and paleobathymetry inferred from lithology and biogenic components, implies that the reef-complex deposits formed responding to sea-level changes with amplitude of > 60 m. Consequently, we suggest that the change in the mode of sedimentation results from increased amplitude of sea-level fluctuations at ∼ 0.8 Ma. This timing corresponds roughly to the timing of the Mid-Pleistocene Climate Transition (MPT).     

Decadal-scale changes in abundance of non-scleractinian invertebrates on a Caribbean coral reef

The benthic community structure of the shallow reefs of St. John, US Virgin Islands, was studied from 1992 to 2007 to test the hypotheses that the abundances of non-scleractinian invertebrates have changed, and further, that the changes are associated with variation in the percentage cover of scleractinian coral and macroalgae. The study utilized photoquadrats (0.25 m²) from fringing reefs (7-9 m depth) characterized by igneous boulders and low (< 5%) coral cover, and results from six sites were pooled to describe these reefs as a single habitat. Photoquadrats were analyzed biennially for the abundance of invertebrates, particularly those belonging to four well represented classes (Anthozoa, Demospongiae, Echinoidea, and Polychaeta), as well as the cover of scleractinians and macroalgae. Overall, the combined (multivariate) abundance of 30 invertebrate taxa changed over time, the combined (multivariate) abundance of the four invertebrate classes changed over time, and the individual (univariate) abundance of anthozoans, sponges, and echinoids changed over time. Throughout the study, coral cover remained < 5%, and while it varied significantly, it did not display a consistent trajectory of change; in contrast, the cover of macroalgae increased throughout the study. While it is unsurprising that the abundances of invertebrates changed over 15 y, notably they varied even though coral cover remained stable, in only a few cases were they related positively to macroalgal cover, and in most cases it was members of the suspension feeding guild that became more abundant. These outcomes suggest that: (1) benthic invertebrates on the shallow reefs of St. John may be more strongly influenced by regional (e.g., larva supply) than local (e.g., coral cover) conditions, (2) Caribbean reefs have changed more since the early 1990s than can be inferred from variation in cover of coral and macroalgae, and (3) suspension feeding invertebrates have become more common on shallow fringing reefs in at least one location.