Mapping ecosystem services: The supply and demand of flood regulation services in Europe

Ecosystem services (ES) feature highly distinctive spatial and temporal patterns of distribution, quantity, and flows. The flow of ecosystem goods and services to beneficiaries plays a decisive role in the valuation of ES and the successful implementation of the ES concept in environmental planning. This is particularly relevant to regulating services where demands emerge often spatially separated from supply. However, spatial patterns of both supply and demand are rarely incorporated in ES assessments on continental scales. In this paper, we present an ES modeling approach with low data demand, fit to be employed in scenario analysis and on multiple scales. We analyze flood regulation services at a European scale by explicitly addressing the spatial distribution of ES demand. A flood regulation supply indicator is developed based on scenario runs with a hydrological model in representative river catchments, incorporating detailed information on land, cover, land use and management. Land use sensitive flood damage estimates in the European Union (EU) are employed to develop a spatial indicator for flood regulation demand. Findings are transferred to the EU territory to create a map of the current supply of flood regulation and the potential supply under conditions of natural vegetation. Regions with a high capacity to provide flood regulation are mainly characterized by large patches of natural vegetation or extensive agriculture. The main factor limiting supply on a continental scale is a low water holding capacity of the soil. Flood regulation demand is highest in central Europe, at the foothills of the Alps and upstream of agglomerations. We were able to identify areas with a high potential capacity to provide flood regulation in conjunction with land use modifications. When combined with spatial patterns of current supply and demand, we could identify priority areas for investments in ES flood regulation supply through conservation and land use planning. We found that only in a fraction of the EU river catchments exhibiting a high demand, significant increases in flood regulation supply are achievable by means of land use modifications.     

From instantaneous to continuous: Using imaging spectroscopy and in situ data to map two productivity-related ecosystem services

Spatially well-informed decisions are essential to sustain and regulate processes and ecosystem services (ES), and to maintain the capacity of ecosystems to supply services. However, spatially explicit ES information is often lacking in decision-making, or exists only as ES maps based on categorical land cover data. Remote sensing (RS) opens new pathways to map ES, in particular biophysical ES supply. We developed an observation-based concept for spatially explicit and continuous ES mapping at landscape scale following the biophysical part of the ES cascade. We used Earth observations in combination with in situ data to map ecosystem properties, functions, and biophysical ES supply. We applied this concept in a case study to map two ES: carbon dioxide regulation and food supply. Based on Earth observations and in situ data, we determined the ecosystem property Sun-Induced chlorophyll Fluorescence (SIF) to indicate ecosystem state and applied scaling models to estimate gross primary production (GPP) as indicator for ecosystem functioning and consequently carbon dioxide regulation and food supply as ES.Resulting ES maps showed heterogeneous patterns in ES supply within and among ecosystems, which were particularly evident within forests and grasslands. All investigated land cover classes were sources of CO₂, with averages ranging from ‐66 to ‐748 g C m^‐2 yr^‐1, after considering the harvest of total above ground biomass of crops and the storage organ, except for forest being a sink of CO₂ with an average of 105 g C m^‐2 yr^‐1. Estimated annual GPP was related to food supply with a maize grain yield average of 9.5 t ha^‐1 yr^‐1 and a sugar beet root yield of 110 t ha^‐1 yr^‐1. Validation with in situ measurements from flux towers and literature values revealed a good performance of our approach for food supply (relative RMSE of less than 23%), but also some over- and underestimations for carbon dioxide regulation. Our approach demonstrated how RS can contribute to spatially explicit and continuous ES cascade mapping and suggest that this information could be useful for environmental assessments and decision-making in spatial planning and conservation.     

A multiscale analysis of ecosystem services supply in the NW Iberian Peninsula from a functional perspective

In recent years, the assessment of ecosystem services (ES) supply has been based on the use of Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) data as proxies for spatial representation of ecosystems. Nevertheless, some shortcomings of this method, such as uncertainties derived from generalization of the ecosystem types and assumptions of invariance across spatial scales, indicate the need for new approaches. Such approaches could be aimed at improving knowledge of the relationships between ecosystem services and landscape structure and the spatial characteristics of ES patterns. In this study, we propose an integrative approach that involves the generation and analysis of continuous maps representing the supply of five ES potentially related to the amount of biomass. Five remote sensing images of the Northwestern Iberian Peninsula, obtained with Landsat-5 TM, were used to generate a proxy for net primary production by combining the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of each image to calculate a ΣNDVI index that could act as a potential indicator of some ecosystem services. This information was combined with three variables – terrain slope, population density and occurrence of protected areas – to produce spatial models for the five ES and eventually a series of five supply maps. Food, materials and energy provision services showed a clustered pattern, with high supply values in flat zones and areas with high population densities. In contrast, mass flow and climate regulation services were more widely distributed throughout the study area. The five ecosystem service patterns were analyzed at different scales by two methods: lacunarity and four term local quadrat variance (4TLQV) analysis. These methods revealed differences in the spatial pattern: lacunarity analysis was useful for detection of scale thresholds at the local level, whereas 4TLQV was more sensitive to scale thresholds at larger spatial levels. Thus, the variance analysis yielded higher values for larger windows sizes, particularly for provisioning services. The results demonstrated the suitability of the proposed approach for the spatially explicit modeling of ecosystem services, avoiding the uncertainty of other assessments such as those based on LULC data, and for the exploratory analysis of ES supply from a spatial point of view.     

Scale and ecological dependence of ecosystem services evaluation: Spatial extension and economic value of freshwater ecosystems in Italy

Using land cover datasets derived from satellite imagery as a proxy for ecosystem services (ES) mapping and evaluation generates a series of technical problems mainly related to the resolution at which spatial data are acquired. Small sized and highly fragmented ecosystems such as wetlands, streams and rivers are particularly underestimated when coarse resolution land cover datasets are used. However, even at finer resolution, a large fraction of the economic value provided by freshwater ecosystems may not be adequately captured by remote sensed data because, other than technical and methodological problems, the provision of many freshwater services is strictly dependent on the interactions and contacts of these ecosystems with contiguous environments. The paper analyzes and discusses the effectiveness of the CORINE land cover (CLC) dataset to represent the spatial extension and, indirectly, the economic value of freshwater biomes in Italy, with emphasis on rivers and streams. Using a georeferenced national hydrographic network database and applying a stream buffer of variable width to more than 20,000 water courses, we demonstrated that less than 10% of the estimated surface is captured by the CLC dataset with heavy negative consequences on the overall evaluation of ES at local, regional and national scale. Our approach, easily applicable also to other geographical and spatial contexts, may contribute to improve proxy-based methodologies in ES mapping/evaluation and may help to limit errors in the estimation of freshwater services.     

Enhancing the conservation status and resilience of a narrowly distributed forest: A challenge to effectively support ecosystem services in practice

The conservation and sustainable management of forests has become an important issue, especially in ecosystems where keystone species form unique and marginal forest habitats with narrow distribution. With increasing pressures and threats to nature, the establishment of Protected Areas has been recognized as a major tool for maintaining well-functioning forest ecosystems and their associated ecosystem services (ES). This study aims at assessing the changes in the status of a narrowly distributed Mediterranean forest through the perspective of land cover dynamics and the ES framework. Using the priority habitat of Cedrus brevifolia forest as a case study, the distribution of land use and land cover (LULC) was mapped and simulated, together with the supply of multiple ES before and after the implementation of conservation measures. The results prior applying the management actions revealed a general pattern of forest densification that did not act fully in favor of C. brevifolia due to competitions among forest species. From an ES viewpoint, forest densification led to landscape homogenization affecting important ES such as the increase in the supply of regulating services, and the decrease in the ability to support nursery populations and habitats. By contrast, the future simulation of LULC integrated with afforestation and thinning measures showed an expected increase in both high-density vegetation and cedar trees, benefiting multiple ES. The current findings highlight the importance of sustainable forest management in enhancing the co-occurrence of several ES and supporting the overall multi-functionality of ecosystems. The holistic approach presented in this study can offer new insights into the relation between ES and natural ecosystem and/or habitats’ management while avoiding potential negative impacts on human well-being and ecosystem resilience.     

The integration of crop rotation and tillage practices in the assessment of ecosystem services provision at the regional scale

The provision of ecosystem services at the landscape level can be significantly influenced by land management practices. Within an agriculturally dominated case study area in Saxony, Germany, a more detailed land use classification, which includes differentiated information on agricultural management practices, was utilized within the raster-based planning support tool GISCAME. “Management” refers to typical, regional crop rotations and soil tillage practices.The focus of this research was based on an indicator-based approach to assess ecosystem services and the development of land use change (LUC) and land management change (LMC) scenarios. The EuroMaps Land Cover data set was specifically developed for the case study and included remote sensing information for the general land use classification and terrestrial mapping information. Furthermore, statistical data on detailed regional agricultural land management were included. The raster-based planning support tool GISCAME was then used to simulate scenarios and visualize results. The LUC and LMC scenarios showed that the more detailed land use classification provided better output for the prioritization of planning alternatives. Further it enabled a refined assessment of the provisioning services (i) food and fodder provision, (ii) biomass provision, the regulation services, (iii) soil erosion protection, (iv) drought risk regulation, (v) flood regulation, (vi) returns from land-based production (i.e. the market value of biomass provision), and (vii) ecological integrity. The results of this study support the view that the application of improved management measures, such as conservation tillage, can significantly enhance the provision of ecosystem services (e.g. soil erosion protection and drought risk regulation) at the landscape level. The study also indicates that a combination of strategic LUC, such as afforestation and LMC, might be an effective way to enhance regulating services with acceptable trade-offs regarding provisioning services. Our approach presents a refined foundation for ecosystem services assessment, which is designed to better support regional planning and the provision of information to non-experts in the participatory processes. For transfer into other regions, standardized land use and land management classification will have to be defined.     

Interactions between changes in land cover and potential of ecosystem services in Lithuania at temporal and spatial scale

The growing interest in ecosystem services is mainly related to land use changes. The aim of the study is to analyse spatial-temporal changes in the capacity to supply of ES in Lithuania based on land use changes in 1990–2018. The results show some balance between loss and gains of ecosystem services capacity due to land use changes. Decrease in heterogenous agricultural areas had negative impact on provision of ecosystem integrity and services. Considerable increase in scrubland and herbaceous vegetation areas significantly increased the ecosystem service potential. The conversion of former agricultural land to less intensively managed ecosystems enhance the potential of valuable habitats for biodiversity and ecosystem services associated with natural grasslands, moors and heathland, transitional woodland shrubs. The urbanization process along with increase in urban fabric areas had little effect on ESs potential since artificial vegetated areas had compensated the loss of ESs due to increased areas of urbanized ecosystems. Despite the area of open spaces slightly increased, this led to decrease of provision of ESs. Temporal changes in overall ESs capacity indicated an increase in Lithuania over the last two decades. Given the observed dynamic context of land cover, the structure of ecosystem services may face potential threats from land use change due to urban development and agricultural activities.     

Linking biodiversity indicators,ecosystem functioning,provision of services and human well-being in estuarine systems: Application of a conceptual framework

Assuming that human well-being strongly relies on the services provided by well-functioning ecosystems, changes in the ecological functioning of any system can have direct and indirect effects on human welfare. Intensive land use and tourism have expanded in recent decades along coastal ecosystems, together with increasing demands for water, food and energy; all of these factors intensify the exploitation of natural resources. Many of the interrelations between ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services (ES) still require quantification in estuarine systems. A conceptual framework to assess such links in a spatially and temporally explicit manner is proposed and applied to the Mondego estuary (Portugal). This framework relies on three consecutive steps and discriminates among biodiversity structural components, ecosystem functioning and stability and the services provided by the ecosystem.Disturbances in abiotic factors were found to have a direct effect on biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ES. The observed changes in the species composition of communities had a positive effect on the ecosystem's productivity and stability. Moreover, the observed changes in the estuarine ES provision are likely to arise from changing structural and abiotic factors and in the present case from the loss or decline of locally abundant species. This study also indicates that linear relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and services provision are unlikely to occur in estuarine systems. Instead, cumulative and complex relations are observed between factors on both temporal and spatial scales. In this context, the results suggest several additional conclusions: (1) biodiversity and ecosystem functioning interaction with human well-being need to be incorporated into decision-making processes aimed at the conservative management of systems; (2) the institutional use of research results must be part of the design and implementation of sustainable management activities; and (3) more integrative tools/studies are required to account for the interactions of estuarine ecosystems with surrounding socio-economic activities. Therefore, when performing integrated assessments of ecosystem dynamics, it becomes essential to consider not only the effects of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning on services provision but also the effects that human well-being and ES provision may have on estuarine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.The proposed framework implies taking into account both the functional and the commodities points of view upon natural ecosystems and by this representing a line of thought which will deserve further research to explore more in detail the conceptual links between biodiversity–ecosystem functioning–services provided.     

Testing the applicability of ecosystem services mapping methods for peri-urban contexts: A case study for Paris

Through their semi-natural and agricultural areas, peri-urban regions are pivotal in providing ecosystem services (ES) to city dwellers. To quantify the ES provided by these areas, it is possible to use ES mapping methods: many ES mapping methods rely on land cover maps, but most maps are coarse compared to the peri-urban scale. Nevertheless, readily-available land use data and methods are often used to map ES at such scales, without contextualisation. As a result, such methods may not be able to capture the diversity that is present in the peri-urban vegetation, which could have consequences for their accuracy and furthermore for urban planning policies.To increase our understanding of the applicability of ES mapping methods in peri-urban regions, we assessed to what degree sites with similar plant composition in the green belt of Paris, France, were also projected to have similar ES bundles. We considered two commonly used ES model types: proxy-based models (here: look-up tables) and phenomenological models. We used 252 sites for which botanical survey data were available and applied the ES models to seven ES relevant in the peri-urban context. A cluster analysis was used to group sites, hence facilitating analyse of the spatial congruence between types of vegetation and bundles of ES.Clustering sites based on plant composition revealed six distinct clusters. Clustering sites based on ES bundles as estimated by phenomenological models and proxy-based models, resulted in four and two clusters, respectively. The proxy-based clustering only highlighted broad-leaved forests as an important ES supply source. The phenomenological model estimates of ES allowed a more nuanced clustering of sites into four different groups. The level of congruence between the different sets of clusters based on plant composition and estimated ES bundles was low. Except for forests, the commonly used ES models tested here were not able to represent the same level of heterogeneity in the peri-urban landscape as was found in the vegetation. Our results demonstrate the need to integrate finer scale approaches and primary data in ES assessments of peri-urban areas.     

Consistent trade-offs in ecosystem services between land covers with different production intensities

Sustaining multiple ecosystem services across a landscape requires an understanding of how consistently services are shaped by different categories of land uses. Yet, this understanding is generally constrained by the availability of fine-resolution data for multiple services across large areas and the spatial variability of land-use effects on services. We systematically surveyed published literature for New Zealand (1970–2015) to quantify the supply of 17 non-production services across 25 land covers (as a proxy for land use). We found a consistent trade-off in the services supplied by anthropogenic land covers with a high production intensity (e.g. cropping) versus those with extensive or no production. By contrast, forest cover was not associated with any distinct patterns of service supply. By drawing on existing research findings, we reveal complementarity and redundancy (potentially influencing resilience) in service supply from different land covers. This will guide practitioners in shaping land systems that sustainably support human well-being.     

Mapping multiple ecosystem services indicators: Toward an objective-oriented approach

Quantifying and mapping ecosystem services (ES), their indicators and their relationships is of crucial importance for environmental management. In this article, we analyze the spatial distribution of multiple-ES indicators at three locations on the pioneer fronts of the Brazilian Amazon. We identify trade-offs and synergies between six ES indicators for soil, vegetation and biodiversity characterization. We also propose spatial representations of multiple-ES indicators (vegetation carbon stocks, rates of water infiltration into soil, soil chemical quality, soil carbon stocks, biodiversity and richness in Sphingidae). Finally, we discuss three different methods to map them depending on the goals of the maps, arguing that maps lean on objective-oriented approaches. The study is based on remote sensing and sampling data from 135 sampling points. We created multiple-ES indicators maps based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA), a score of ES richness, and discrimination of land cover units. PCA is an appropriate tool for showing high correlations between indicators, nevertheless has notable limitations for visual communication. The scoring method may help mapping ES hotspots, however it fails to consider relationships among them. The land-cover-based method has the advantage of being simple and easy to interpret, still it may not consider important indicators not related to land-cover changes. We discuss the interests and limitations of these different ways to map multiple-ES indicators, regarding the final goals of the maps.     

Assessing regulating and provisioning ecosystem services in a contrasting tropical forest landscape

Ecosystem services are the bridge between nature and society, and are essential elements of community well-being. The Wet Tropics Australia, is environmentally and biologically diverse, and supplies numerous ecosystem services. It contributes to the community well-being of this region, Australian national economy and global climate change mitigation efforts. However, the ecosystem services in the region have rarely been assessed undermining strategic landscape planning to sustain their future flow. In this study, we attempted to: (i) assess the quantity of five regulating ecosystem services – global climate regulation, air quality regulation, erosion regulation, nutrient regulation, and cyclone protection, and three provisioning ecosystem services – habitat provision, energy provision and timber provision across rainforests, sclerophyll forests and rehabilitated plantation forests; (ii) evaluate the variation of supply of those regulating and provisioning ecosystem services across environmental gradients, such as rainfall, temperature, and elevation; (iii) show the relationships among those ecosystem services; and (iv) identify the hotspots of single and multiple ecosystem services supply across the landscape. The results showed that rainforests possess a very high capacity to supply single and multiple ecosystem services, and the hotspots for most of the regulating and provisioning ecosystem services are found in upland rainforest followed by lowland rainforest, and upland sclerophyll forest. Elevation, rainfall and temperature gradients along with forest structure are the main determinant factors for the quantity of ecosystem services supplied across the three forest types. The correlation among ecosystem services may be positive or negative depending on the ecosystem service category and vegetation type. The rehabilitated plantation forests may provide some ecosystem services comparable to the rainforest. The results demonstrated disturbance regimes (such as tropical cyclones) may have influenced the usual spatial trend of ecosystem service values. This study will assist decision makers in incorporating ecosystem services into their natural resource management planning, and for practitioners to identify the areas with higher values of specific and multiple ecosystem services.     

From Field Data to Ecosystem Services Maps: Using Regressions for the Case of Deforested Areas Within the Amazon

Quantifying and mapping ecosystem services (ES) is seen as one way to improve decision making and land management to better integrate environmental issues. This study aimed to characterize ES supply in deforestation context where an improvement of scientific knowledge should help develop more efficient environmental management. For three case studies in the Brazilian Amazon impacted by deforestation, seven indicators of potential ES supply were mapped at a spatial resolution of 30 × 30 m: biodiversity index (indicator of food web support); richness of pollinators (pollination); index of soil chemical quality (support to production); water available for plants (water regulation); soil carbon stocks (support to production and climate regulation); rate of water infiltration into the soil (soil erosion control); and vegetation carbon stocks (climate regulation). To map these indicators, in situ measurements of ES for 135 sampling points and remote sensing data were linked using regression methods. These methods were used to predict ES values and identify environmental factors that influence ES supply. The resulting maps help in understanding the influence of environmental factors on ES spatial distribution within the sites. The analyses illustrate the influence of land-use changes on ES supply and the role of context effects due to the heterogeneity of the biophysical environment, the temporality of deforestation and/or their diversified sociopolitical contexts. From a methodological viewpoint, the study highlights the importance of choices inherent in all cartographic practices and that need to be considered, especially in the context of rendering ES maps operational.     

Forest ecosystem assessment,changes in biodiversity and climate change in a densely populated region (Flanders,Belgium)

Abstract

Throughout the world, forest covers one-third of the land's area. Present and historical human activities caused tremendous land use changes and triggered the onset of unseen climate changes. Yet, these socio-economically based environmental changes interfere with services that forests provide to mankind from global to local scales. Densely populated regions such as Flanders (Belgium), with over 430 people per km², have the dubious honour to serve as examples of extreme human induced forest changes. The issue of forest biodiversity is reviewed in the light of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment scheme. Flanders is a poorly forested region (11% forest cover); supporting services are consequently low. Merely 16% of that area has known 230 years of continuous forest cover, representing forest with the highest current biodiversity. Also, the demands for regulating services are growing and the limits may have been reached. Provisioning services may increase again in future when demands for, for example bio-energy, increase. Cultural services, particularly the recreational function, have increased greatly. Human well-being in Flanders partly depends on the services provided by forest ecosystems. However, as demands on forests are huge, a shift to a sustainable use of forest resources will be essential to assure its beneficial role for present and future generations.     

水源涵养与水文调节:和而不同的陆地生态系统水文服务

水与生态系统的关系是重要的科学问题,并且受到社会广泛关注。水源涵养和水文调节都是陆地生态系统所能提供的水文服务,并从生态水文和水资源角度把生态系统的健康和完整性与人类社会的持续发展紧密联系起来,从而也要求动态和综合的视角加以深入研究。基于生态水文过程原理,对水源涵养和水文调节的概念进行了辨析,认为前者是后者的有机组成部分,相对具体、应用中务求精确明晰;后者则更具包容性、客观性和广泛适用性。文章进一步简要分析了当前国内外生态系统水源涵养和水文调节服务的主导评估方法,结果表明,水源涵养的评估以储水量法为主,而水文调节则以基于降水和蒸散的水量平衡法及综合模型法(如SWAT)为主。从生态系统服务相互作用的角度考量,实际上水源涵养和水文调节及其相关的其它服务类型(如固碳、土壤保持、生物生产、淡水供给等)存在着复杂的动态权衡或协同关系,在科学研究和生态系统管理实践中必须统筹考虑,以确保对科学问题的准确把握和促进"水-生态-社会系统"的高效、可持续发展。为此,必须加强对生态水文过程的长期观测和实验研究,并且关注空间异质性及尺度效应、时间动态性和利益相关者需求的多维性。     

Assessment of ecosystem services at the national level in Germany—Illustration of the concept and the development of indicators by way of the example wood provision

The EU Biodiversity Strategy stipulates in Target 2, Action 5 that the member states must map and assess the state of the ecosystems and their services and promote the integration into the reporting systems at the EU and national level by 2020. Therefore indicators for capturing and assessing ecosystem services (ES) are needed. In this paper we report for which ES class types currently ES indicators are being developed for Germany in the context of an ongoing research project. Additionally, we provide the indicator specifications, which are based on underlying framework concept. By way of the example of the provisioning service ‘raw wood production’ and the development of the main-indicator ‘annual wood accrual’ and six sub-indicators, we illustrate the concrete procedure, including discussion of results and target values. The indicators for the ES wood provision are not only suitable for an exemplary illustration of procedure, data selection and data basis in Germany. Furthermore, it shows that indicators for provisioning ES can eminently conflict with biodiversity and other ES.     

The biodiversity–ecosystem service relationship in urban areas: a quantitative review

By 2050, up to 75% of people globally will live in cities. Despite the potential ramifications of this urbanization for ecosystem services (ES), and the importance of locally produced ES for the health and wellbeing of urban residents, syntheses addressing the underlying ecology of ES provision rarely include urban areas. Here, I conduct a quantitative review of urban ES studies in the ecological literature, synthesizing trends across the discipline. I also quantify the extent to which this work considers the organisms and ecosystem components responsible for ES provision using two approaches: assessment of biodiversity–ES relationships, and an adaptation of the service provider concept. The majority of urban ES studies were conducted in western, developed countries, and typically assessed a single service in a single city – largely ignoring ES synergies and tradeoffs, and cross‐city comparisons. While several different ES are studied in urban ecosystems, the field is dominated by weather and climate‐related regulating services, with assessments of cultural services particularly lacking. Most studies described a habitat type as the service provider; however, studies that considered the biodiversity–ES relationship were more likely to identify a specific functional group, community, or population as the key provider of an ES. The biodiversity–ES relationship itself was most frequently characterized as dependent on the composition of species, functional traits, or structures, rather than correlated with the magnitude of any specific biodiversity metric. While the study of ES in urban ecosystems is increasing, there exists considerable room for further research. Future studies would benefit by expanding the number and categories of ES assessed within and across cities, as well as broadening the geographical scope of urban ES research. Biodiversity–ES assessments in urban ecosystems would also benefit from an expansion of the biodiversity types considered, particularly regarding non‐species based approaches, and consideration of non‐native and invasive species. Synthesis Urban ecosystem services (ES) affect the health and wellbeing of over 3.5 billion people who live in cities. However, syntheses addressing ES provision rarely include urban areas. I conducted the first quantitative review focused explicitly on the ecology of urban ES, including the role of biodiversity in service provision. I found that studies typically measure only a single service in one city, precluding assessment of ES synergies, tradeoffs, and cross‐city comparisons. I also found that while most studies attribute ES provision to a habitat or land‐use type, studies that consider biodiversity‐ES relationships are more likely to recognize a specific functional group, community, or population as the key provider of an ES.     

Community mapping of ecosystem services in tropical rainforest of Ecuador

Tropical forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services (ES), and their continuous supply depends on efficient and effective management against deforestation and forest degradation. In Ecuador, indigenous communities are highly dependent on the forest and therefore on forest ES. However, there is a lack of knowledge about their demands concerning ES. In order to better understand how local and indigenous people use the forest and to facilitate its management, this study completed a spatially explicit assessment of ES using participatory mapping in the Sumaco Biosphere Reserve (Napo province, Central-Northern Ecuador). The Biosphere Reserve is suitable as a case study because it is a protected area with high land-use and population pressure and therefore requires the development and monitoring of management plans.First, semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts (n = 15) in order to identify the most important ES used by the communities in the study area. In a second step, members (n = 208) of 24 communities were asked to indicate on a 3-D map where they utilize the different ES (food, wood, water, tourism, hunting). The highlighted localities were digitized and then analyzed with statistical and GIS techniques. The results showed that the ES locations were not randomly distributed, but were most abundant four kilometers or less from roads. Spatial pattern analysis identified hotspots of ES provision, and the evaluation according to administrative units allowed us to identify five municipalities where demand for all assessed ES was high. In conclusion, the combination of participatory mapping of ES and GIS-based analysis can facilitate the identification of priority protection areas, provide guidance for developing specific forest management strategies, and also support monitoring systems to detect forest degradation.     

近60年挠力河流域生态系统服务价值时空变化

根据1950-2005年挠力河流域土地利用数据,利用中国陆地生态系统单位面积生态服务价值当量表,对近60年挠力河流域生态系统服务价值的时空变化进行研究.结果表明,自1950年至2005年,挠力河流域生态系统服务价值逐渐减少,由749.84亿元降低至308.82亿元,损失约58.82％;价值空间格局由以高价值区为主导的状态逐渐转化为以低价值区为主导的状态,且价值质心由北向南发生转移;挠力河流域生态系统服务价值的全局自相关指数逐渐减小,高-高自相关类型沿河流主干道逐渐萎缩,且呈现破碎化趋势,低-低自相关类型呈先减少后增加的“V”趋势,呈现不显著连片化趋势.人为垦殖活动是该流域生态系统服务价值时空动态变化的主要驱动因素.     

西部山区流域生态系统服务权衡与协同关系——以甘肃白龙江流域为例

甘肃白龙江流域是长江上游重要水源涵养和生态屏障区,生态系统服务研究对该流域生态保护与经济发展的双赢具有重要意义。本研究基于InVEST模型进行4种典型生态系统服务(如土壤保持、水源涵养、食物供给、生境质量)评估,并通过相关性和均方根偏差(RMSD)开展服务间多尺度权衡及其成因分析。结果表明: 土壤保持、水源涵养和生境质量两两之间为显著协同关系,食物供给分别与生境质量、土壤保持和水源涵养间为显著权衡关系。3对协同服务和食物供给与生境质量的权衡强度高值主要集中于文县、迭部和舟曲的中高山阴陡坡林区;食物供给与土壤保持、食物供给与水源涵养间的权衡强度高值主要集中于宕昌和武都的中低山阳缓坡农牧区。人类活动驱使下的土地利用/覆被格局空间差异是影响服务权衡程度及其尺度效应的重要因素。