Photoregulation of Phytochrome Synthesis in Germinating Embryos of Avena sativa L.

Hilton, J. R. and Thomas, B. 1987. Photoregulation of phytochromesynthesis in germinating embryos of Avena sativa L.—J.exp. Bot. 38: 1704–1712. The effect of light on the accumulation of phytochrome in germinatingAvena embryos was determined. A quantitative ELISA using monoclonalantibody AFRC MAC 56 was used to measure specifically type 1(or dark) phytochrome. A pulse of red light given after 14 himbibition but prior to the onset of type 1 phytochrome synthesis,strongly inhibited subsequent type 1 phytochrome accumulation.This effect of red light at 14 h was reversible by far-red lightindicating the involvement of phytochrome. Red light also inhibitedphytochrome synthesis after 18 h and 24 h imbibition but after24 h, far-red light did not reverse the effect. The effect ofred light treatment at 18 h was reversed by giving a pulse offar-red light at any time up to 30 h. Seed germination was notinfluenced by light under the conditions of these experiments.It is proposed that type 2 (or light) phytochrome may be responsiblefor photoregulation of type 1 phytochrome synthesis in germinatingAvena embryos. Key words: Photoregulation, phytochrome, seed.     

Biodiversity effects on yield and unsown species invasion in a temperate forage ecosystem

Background and Aims

Current agricultural practices are based on growing monocultures or binary mixtures over large areas, with a resultant impoverishing effect on biodiversity at several trophic levels. The effects of increasing the biodiversity of a sward mixture on dry matter yield and unsown species invasion were studied.

Methods

A field experiment involving four grassland species [two grasses – perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) – and two legumes – red clover (Trifolium pratense) and white clover (Trifolium repens)], grown in monocultures and mixtures in accordance with a simplex design, was carried out. The legumes were included either as single varieties or as one of two broad genetic-base composites. The experiment was harvested three times a year over three years; dry matter yield and yield of unsown species were determined at each harvest. Yields of individual species and interactions between all species present were estimated through a statistical modelling approach.

Key Results

Species diversity produced a strong positive yield effect that resulted in transgressive over-yielding in the second and third years. Using broad genetic-base composites of the legumes had a small impact on yield and species interactions. Invasion by unsown species was strongly reduced by species diversity, but species identity was also important. Cocksfoot and white clover (with the exception of one broad genetic-base composite) reduced invasion, while red clover was the most invaded species.

Conclusions

The results show that it is possible to increase, and stabilize, the yield of a grassland crop and reduce invasion by unsown species by increasing its species diversity.Key words: Cocksfoot, Dactylis glomerata, diversity effect, invasion, legumes, perennial ryegrass, Lolium perenne, red clover, Trifolium pratense, simplex design, statistical modelling, transgressive over-yielding, white clover, T. repens     

Trehalose mobilization during early germination ofPilobolus longipes sporangiospores

Pilobolus longipes spores were activated by either exogenous glucose or 6-deoxyglucose. Trehalose content of glucose-activated spores increased and the substrate for trehalose synthesis was exogenous glucose. Addition of 6-deoxyglucose resulted in mobilization of trehalose, with about 20% of the reserve being consumed in the first hour. Little or no change in trehalase activity occurred during spore activation. Most of the trehalase activity associated with spores could be removed by washing with phosphate buffer. This extracellular enzyme was relatively stable, had a pH optimum of 5.6 and a K_m of about 0.5 mM and was estimated to be 66,000 in molecular weight. The specific activity of the crude enzyme extracts fromP. longipes was not influenced by cAMP, but, under the same conditions, the regulatory trehalase fromSaccharomyces cerevisiae became activated. These experiments indicate that trehalase activity in germinatingP. longipes spores may not be regulated by cAMP-dependent phosphorylation. Instead, the results suggest that trehalose is mobilized by a decompartmentation process.     

Bacterial communities of some brown and red algae from Peter the Great Bay, the Sea of Japan

The structure of microbial communities of brown algae, red algae, and of the red alga Gracilaria verrucosa, healthy and affected with thallus rot, were comparatively investigated; 61 strains of heterotrophic bacteria were isolated and characterized. Most of them were identified to the genus level, some Vibrio spp., to the species level according to their phenotypic properties and the fatty acid composition of cellular lipids. The composition of the microflora of two species of brown algae was different. In Chordaria flagelliphormis, Pseudomonas spp. prevailed, and in Desmarestia viridis, Bacillus spp. The composition of the microflora of two red algae, G. verrucosa and Camphylaephora hyphaeoides, differed mainly in the ratio of prevailing groups of bacteria. The most abundant were bacteria of the CFB cluster and pseudoalteromonads. In addition, the following bacteria were found on the surface of the algae: Sulfitobacter spp., Halomonas spp., Acinetobacter sp., Planococcus sp., Arthrobacter sp., and Agromyces sp. From tissues of the affected G. verrucosa, only vibrios were isolated, both agarolytic and nonagarolytic. The existence of specific bacterial communities characteristic of different species of algae is suggested and the relation of Vibrio sp. to the pathological process in the tissues of G. verrucosa is supposed.     

Prevalence of embedded shotgun pellets in protected and in legally hunted medium-sized carnivores in Denmark

Illegal killings of protected species may significantly affect their population status or lower recovery rates after protection. Poaching is difficult to monitor directly, hence indirect methods are required to document poaching incidences and levels. The use of shotguns inevitably results in wounding some animals that are not killed. Inefficient hunting methods may result in high annual infliction rates in game species. To reduce wounding of game species, an action plan was implemented in Denmark. Using X-ray analysis, we monitor trends in prevalence of embedded shotgun pellets in the legally hunted red fox (Vulpes vulpes) after the implementation of the action plan, and assess poaching levels of two protected species, the otter (Lutra lutra) and the badger (Meles meles) in Denmark. Overall, 13.8% of the red foxes and 6.9% of the otters carried embedded shotgun pellets, while none were recorded in badgers. The prevalence of embedded shotgun pellets in red foxes declined from 24.9% to 8.5% from the late 1990s to the late 2000s, while no change was recorded in otters. Prevalence of embedded shotgun pellets was similar in otters and red foxes collected in the late 2000s. The decline in wounded red foxes suggests that the hunting methods have changed after the action plan was implemented in Denmark. The high proportion of otters carrying embedded shotgun pellets shows that there is a significant poaching of this protected species in Denmark, possibly by hunters and fish farmers that cannot distinguish between otter and non-native American mink (Neovison vison).     

Blood groups of Old World monkeys,evolutionary and taxonomic implications

For practical purposes two classes of blood groups of Old World monkeys can be distinguished: human-type and simian-type, depending on the kind of reagents used for testing. Of the human-type blood groups, only the A-B-O groups, defined by saliva inhibition and serum tests, are polymorphic in some, but not all, monkey species. The distributions of those groups show wide differences not only among monkey species but also among troops of one and the same species. The tests for other human-type antigens give with the monkey red cells either uniformly positive or uniformly negative results. Thus, the human-type blood groups seem to be of limited use as taxonomic tools in the systematics of the Old World monkeys.On the other hand, the simian-type blood groups, defined by isoor crossimmune monkey sera, display highly polymorphic patterns in most species of Old World monkeys, and the capability of the antisera to react with combining groups on the red cells of monkeys of closely related species seems to reflect the taxonomic closeness of two or more species. The fact that some of the simian-type specificities, notably those belonging to the rhesus D^rh graded blood group system, are shared by many species of Old World monkeys, indicates that they were introduced into genotypes during early stages of evolution of the Cercopithecidae.     

A comparative analysis of global, national, and state red lists for threatened amphibians in Brazil

The knowledge about the conservation status of species is an important data for conservation biology. Therefore, threatened species lists are a powerful tool for conservation planning and prioritization. Our objective is to compare the global, the national and state red lists of amphibians in Brazil. Threatened species were categorized according to their listing in one or several of these lists. We analyzed for true inconsistencies across lists in order to evaluate practical consequences of such incongruences on amphibian conservation in Brazil. We recorded a total of 61 threatened amphibian species in Brazil (across all red lists). Only one species, Phrynomedusa fimbriata, was listed as Extinct (both in IUCN, Brazil and S?o Paulo lists). A total of eleven endemic species are listed as threatened by the global red list, but do not appear in Brazil’s national red list, which represent an inconsistence among these lists. Besides that, the threat category of Thoropa lutzi and Thoropa petropolitana, two endemic species, differ among both lists, which also represents a problem between both lists. These mismatches may be due to several reasons such as different interpretation of the criteria; different methodologies used; different data availability on species; differences in the dates of assessments processes; the assessors’ attitudes to uncertainty; outdated red lists. Harmonization among red lists permits a better picture of threatened amphibian diversity across scales and to develop global, national and state plans to complement conservation actions in order to maximize the chance of success of these initiatives.     

Effect of a red oak species gradient on genetic structure and diversity of Quercus castanea (Fagaceae) in Mexico

Incipient reproductive barriers are a common characteristic of oak species. Disruption of these barriers promotes changes in diversity and genetic structure of the species involved. Quercus castanea is a red oak with wide geographic distribution in Mexico, which presents atypically high morphological variability when it occurs in sympatry with other red oak species, suggesting that hybridization may explain the observed variation. We tested if the genetic structure and diversity levels of Q. castanea are related to the number of red oak species growing in sympatry. In total, 14 microsatellite (SSRs) primers (six nSSRs and eight cpSSRs) were used in 120 Q. castanea individuals (20/site) belonging to six populations, where the number of red oak species associated varied from zero to five. Results showed a positive and significant relationship between the genetic diversity of Q. castanea and the number of red oak species growing in sympatry, regardless of the marker type or the parameter of genetic diversity analyzed. Also, we found a higher genetic differentiation of Q. castanea populations using cpSSRs in comparison with nSSRs. Our results suggest that temperate forests with high red oaks species richness co-dominated by Q. castanea promote the increase in this species genetic diversity. From a conservation perspective, high genetic diversity levels of foundation species such as Q. castanea may have positive cascade effects extending to other species in the community.     

Metabolic profiling of Dactylopius (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae) species pigments by geographical origin and hosts using multivariate data analysis

The genus Dactylopius includes the group of insects historically used in Mexico as a source of natural red colorant, the cochineal color. Five species of Dactylopius collected in thirteen states of Mexico and two provinces of Argentina were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography with a photodiode array detector. This analysis allowed each species to be identified on the basis of differences in their metabolic profiles. Cluster analysis and principal component analysis differentiated the species by localities and host plant. These two multivariate data analysis techniques were complementary and confirmed the grouping of all analyzed Dactylopius samples. For all species, carminic acid, identified by reference to a commercial sample, was the major compound present in significant amounts, making all five species potential sources of colorant. In addition, each species could be differentiated by the presence of other minor compounds.     

Unripe red fruits may be aposematic

The unripe fruits of certain species are red. Some of these species disperse their seeds by wind (Nerium oleander, Anabasis articulata), others by adhering to animals with their spines (Emex spinosa) or prickles (Hedysarum spinosissimum). Certainly neither type uses red coloration as advertisement to attract the seed dispersing agents. Fleshy-fruited species (Rhamnus alaternus, Rubus sanguineus and Pistacia sp.), which disperse their seeds via frugivores, change fruit color from green to red while still unripe and then to black or dark blue upon ripening. The red color does not seem to function primarily in dispersal (unless red fruits form advertisement flags when there are already black ripe fruits on the plant) because the red unripe fruits of these species are poisonous, spiny, or unpalatable. The unripe red fruits of Nerium oleander are very poisonous, those of Rhamnus alaternus and Anabasis articulata are moderately poisonous, those of Rubus sanguineus are very sour, those of Pistacia sp. contain unpalatable resin and those of Emex spinosa and Hedysarum spinosissimum are prickly. We propose that these unripe red fruits are aposematic, protecting them from herbivory before seed maturation.     

Understanding the degradation of Congo red and bacterial diversity in an air–cathode microbial fuel cell being evaluated for simultaneous azo dye removal from wastewater and bioelectricity generation

We investigated the mechanism of Congo red degradation and bacterial diversity in a single-chambered microbial fuel cell (MFC) incorporating a microfiltration membrane and air–cathode. The MFC was operated continuously for more than 4 months using a mixture of Congo red and glucose as fuel. We demonstrated that the Congo red azo bonds were reduced at the anode to form aromatic amines. This is consistent with the known mechanism of anaerobic biodegradation of azo dyes. The MFC developed a less dense biofilm at the anode in the presence of Congo red compared to its absence indicating that Congo red degradation negatively affected biofilm formation. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and direct 16S ribosomal DNA gene nucleotide sequencing revealed that the microbial communities differed depending on whether Congo red was present in the MFC. Geobacter-like species known to generate electricity were detected in the presence or absence of Congo red. In contrast, Azospirillum, Methylobacterium, Rhodobacter, Desulfovibrio, Trichococcus, and Bacteroides species were only detected in its presence. These species were most likely responsible for degrading Congo red.     

Molecular identification of seven Sarcocystis species in red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Lithuania

The diaphragm muscles of 77 free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus) were examined for Sarcocystis species in Lithuania. Sarcocysts were detected in 61 out of 77 (79.2%) animals investigated. A total of 60 isolated sarcocysts were identified to species using subunit I of cytochrome c oxidase (cox1) sequence analysis. Overall, seven species, S. entzerothi, S. hjorti, S. iberica, S. linearis, S. pilosa, S. truncata and S. venatoria, were confirmed in Lithuanian red deer. Sarcocystis entzerothi was reported in red deer for the first time. Previously this species was shown to use sika deer as well as roe deer and fallow deer as an intermediate host. Based on cox1, with the addition of the current data, altogether 13 Sarcocystis species have so far been shown to use red deer as an intermediate host. Species detected in red deer demonstrated considerable differences in intraspecific genetic variation at cox1. Genetic distances between different samples of S. hjorti and S. linearis were calculated using principal coordinates analysis (PCoA), implying molecular divergence of same Sarcocystis species using different hosts in the same geographical area and divergence of those employing same intermediate host species from different areas.     

Talaromyces atroroseus,a New Species Efficiently Producing Industrially Relevant Red Pigments

Some species of Talaromyces secrete large amounts of red pigments. Literature has linked this character to species such as Talaromyces purpurogenus, T. albobiverticillius, T. marneffei, and T. minioluteus often under earlier Penicillium names. Isolates identified as T. purpurogenus have been reported to be interesting industrially and they can produce extracellular enzymes and red pigments, but they can also produce mycotoxins such as rubratoxin A and B and luteoskyrin. Production of mycotoxins limits the use of isolates of a particular species in biotechnology. Talaromyces atroroseus sp. nov., described in this study, produces the azaphilone biosynthetic families mitorubrins and Monascus pigments without any production of mycotoxins. Within the red pigment producing clade, T. atroroseus resolved in a distinct clade separate from all the other species in multigene phylogenies (ITS, β-tubulin and RPB1), which confirm its unique nature. Talaromyces atroroseus resembles T. purpurogenus and T. albobiverticillius in producing red diffusible pigments, but differs from the latter two species by the production of glauconic acid, purpuride and ZG–1494α and by the dull to dark green, thick walled ellipsoidal conidia produced. The type strain of Talaromyces atroroseus is CBS 133442     

Parasitic wasps attracted by the sex pheromone of their coccid host

Sticky traps baited with live virgin females of the California red scale, placed in citrus groves to capture male scales, also attracted parasitic wasps ofAphytis spp. The number of wasps captured per trap (>500) reached up to 75 % of all insects caught in some citrus groves not treated with pesticides. Laboratory experiments withAphytis melinus andA. coheni and other wasps, carried out simultaneously in two different olfactometers, showed that the two species ofAphytis were highly responsive to the sex pheromone of California female red scales.     

Effect of felling on red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and pine marten (Martes martes) diets in transitional mixed forest in Belarus

In transitional mixed forests in northern and central Belarus the influence of intensified felling on the diets of red foxes Vulpes vulpes L. and pine martens Martes martes L. was investigated in two model forested terrains with sandy and clay top-grounds. A total of 1904 scats of red foxes and 1624 scats of pine martens were analysed over two periods differed by logging rate. When logging rate was conservative, red fox and pine marten diets were found to be similar, but under heavy logging feeding of the predator species shifted. In both model woodlands we found the same pronounced dietary trend of higher consumption of rodents, first of all, Microtus voles. The dietary changes were well related to the registered increase in Microtus vole numbers and total number of rodents in felling areas. The increased preying on rodents caused lower consumption of other food items, particularly medium-sized mammals (year-round) or/and birds or/and fruits (in the warm season) or/and mammalian carrion (in the cold season). In the conditions of intensified felling the food niches of the red fox and pine marten diverged mostly because of the great difference in the species structure of rodents consumed. Red foxes turned to preying on Microtus voles more frequently, but less on bank voles Myodes glareolus; while pine martens increased their taking of Microtus voles, continued foraging for bank voles and began taking slightly more of Apodemus mice. Before heavy logging dietary similarity between the red fox and pine marten was high and did not vary considerably through seasons and study areas, whereas after felling was intensified their diet overlap became lower.     

Ultimate Predators: Lionfish Have Evolved to Circumvent Prey Risk Assessment Abilities

Invasive species cause catastrophic alterations to communities worldwide by changing the trophic balance within ecosystems. Ever since their introduction in the mid 1980''s common red lionfish, Pterois volitans, are having dramatic impacts on the Caribbean ecosystem by displacing native species and disrupting food webs. Introduced lionfish capture prey at extraordinary rates, altering the composition of benthic communities. Here we demonstrate that the extraordinary success of the introduced lionfish lies in its capacity to circumvent prey risk assessment abilities as it is virtually undetectable by prey species in its native range. While experienced prey damselfish, Chromis viridis, respond with typical antipredator behaviours when exposed to a common predatory rock cod (Cephalopholis microprion) they fail to visibly react to either the scent or visual presentation of the red lionfish, and responded only to the scent (not the visual cue) of a lionfish of a different genus, Dendrochirus zebra. Experienced prey also had much higher survival when exposed to the two non-invasive predators compared to P. volitans. The cryptic nature of the red lionfish has enabled it to be destructive as a predator and a highly successful invasive species.     

Enzyme polymorphism in Malayan rats of the Subgenus Rattus

Electrophoretic variation in nine red cell proteins was analysed in 256 specimens belonging to six species of Malayan Rattus (including one with two subspecies) of the subgenus Rattus. The average proportion of loci heterozygous per individual for the taxa analysed is 0.04. With the exception of Rattus rattus diardii, R. tiomanicus tiomanicus and R. t. jalorensis, individuals of the other species could be identified by specific electrophoretic phenotypes of one or more of the markers analysed. Relationships among the species studied were elucidated by the classical and phenetic approaches employing electrophoretic characters. The results obtained by the two approaches were similar in most respects and they corresponded better with results based on morphological characters than those based on cytological characters.     

Effect of light on seed germination and seedling growth ofMerremia species

The seeds ofMerremia aegyptia are indifferent to light conditions for germination, which becomes 100% in the first 24 hrs. On the contrary, inM. dissecta the highest percentage was found in red light within the first 24 hrs. This difference was lost later on except in far-red. The seedling growth of the two species was least in blue and red lights, respectively. However, the growth of hypocotyl in the former species was faster than the latter.     

A red tide off the Myanmar coast: Morphological and genetic identification of the dinoflagellate composition

A red tide composed mainly of two Prorocentrum species was found near Kadan Island, southern Myanmar coast, on March 14, 2012. This is the first record of a red tide in the Myanmar coastal area. The red tide included three different harmful dinoflagellates: Prorocentrum rhathymum, Prorocentrum shikokuense and Alexandrium affine. Strains of these species were successfully cultured and examined with detailed morphological observation and DNA (28S rRNA gene) analyses. The strains were subjected to growth experiments under different temperatures to understand their growth capabilities. The experiments were carried out at four different temperature regimes (15, 20, 25 and 30 °C). A. affine exhibited low tolerance for the low temperature regime (15 °C), despite records of its presence in northern temperate regions, indicating this strain is adapted to the tropical environment in Myanmar. P. rhathymum and P. shikokuense exhibited broad tolerance to all given temperature ranges and showed high division rates, providing the physiological basis to form red tides.