The involvement of p38 MAPK in transforming growth factor β1－induced apoptosis in murine hepatocytes

INTRODUCTIONApoptosis is a fundamental important biologicalprocess that is required to maintain the integrity andhomeostasis of multicenular organism[1]. It seemsthat apoptosis is a predominant type of active cendeath in the liver. Endogenous factors, such astransforming growth factor FI (TGF-gi), activin A,CD95 ligand, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) maybe involved in induction of apoptosis in the liver[2].transforming growth factor P (TGF-P) is amember of a super-family of multifu…     

Iron homeostasis in plants： when transcription affects translocation

Despite the fact that iron is one of the most abundant elements of the earth＇s crust, iron deficiencies are serious problems both in human nutrition [ 1 ] and in agriculture [2]. Six to eight percent of the world＇s population is potentially affected by iron deficiency induced anemia, a leading cause of maternal death in African and Asian countries where people rely mostly on plants for their daily intake of iron. Iron can also be a limiting factor in the growth of economically important crop plants because of inadequate soil chemistry, and such deficiencies cannot easily be corrected by amending the soil. Improving the plant＇s ability to absorb iron in adverse conditions and to increase their overall content could offer solutions to these dramatic problems. Therefore understanding the molecular mechanisms regulating iron uptake and homeostasis in plants has potentially important practical applications both in agriculture and human health [3].     

Roles of insulin-like growth factor Ⅱ in regulating female reproductive physiology

The number of growth factors involved in female fertility has been extensively studied, but reluctance to add essential growth factors in culture media has limited progress in optimizing embryonic growth and implantation outcomes, a situation that has ultimately led to reduced pregnancy outcomes. Insulin-like growth factor Ⅱ(IGF-Ⅱ) is the most intricately regulated of all known reproduction-related growth factors characterized to date, and is perhaps the predominant growth factor in human ovarian follicles. This review aims to concisely summarize what is known about the role of IGF-Ⅱ in follicular development, oocyte maturation, embryonic development, implantation success, placentation, fetal growth, and in reducing placental cell apoptosis, as well as present strategies that use growth factors in culture systems to improve the developmental potential of oocytes and embryos in different species. Synthesizing the present knowledge about the physiological roles of IGF-Ⅱ in follicular development, oocyte maturation, and early embryonic development should, on the one hand, deepen our overall understanding of the potential beneficial effects of growth factors in female reproduction and on the other hand support development(optimization) of improved outcomes for assisted reproductive technologies.     

The Actin Cytoskeleton and Signaling Network during Pollen Tube Tip Growth

The organization and dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton play key roles in many aspects of plant cell development. The actin cytoskeleton responds to internal developmental cues and environmental signals and is involved in cell division, subcellular organelle movement, cell polarity and polar cell growth. The tipgrowing pollen tubes provide an ideal model system to investigate fundamental mechanisms of underlying polarized cell growth. In this system, most signaling cascades required for tip growth...     

Stimulation and conformational change of Goa induced by GAP-43

GAP-43, a major component of the neuronal growth cone is closely correlated with neural development and regeneration[1—5]. Go is the predominant noncytoskeletal protein in the growth cone membrane[6]. It is a kind of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins, which transduce signals across the plasma membrane by coupling between receptors and effectors[7]. Stimulation or inhibi-tion of G proteins altered neurite outgrowth[3]. Mastoparan, which activates heterotrimeric G pro-teins of the Go and …     

RETHINKING ACCLIMATION OF GROWTH AND MAINTENANCE RESPIRATION OF TOMATO IN ELEVATED CO2: EFFECTS OF A SUDDEN CHANGE IN LIGHT AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

Aims Changes in light and temperature are among the most common and most profound environmental perturbations. The independent effects of light and temperature on photosynthesis and respiration are well studied in single leaves, but are less well studied in whole plants. The short and long term influence of light and temperature on carbon use efficiency is also poorly understood, and is commonly modeled to remain constant over a wide range of conditions. We sought to determine the primary effects of changing light at two growth temperatures on photosynthesis, respiration, and their balance, as defined by carbon use efficiency. Methods We separated respiration into growth and maintenance components using whole-canopy gas-exchange in an elevated CO₂ environment in a controlled environment, and supplemented that information with tissue analysis. Important findings Decreases in light level decreased carbon use efficiency through a reduction in the maintenance coefficient, increased the growth coefficient, and reduced partitioning of N in protein. Growth temperature did not significantly affect either maintenance or growth respiration coefficients, suggesting that long-term temperature responses can differ greatly from short-term observations.     

Characterization of a novel developmentally retarded mutant (drm1) associated with the autonomous flowering pathway in Arabidopsis

INTRODUCTIONThe transition from vegetative growth to reproductionis one of the most important developmental events in flow-ering plants since it is related to the competence and sur-vivability of a particular species living in a particularenvironment. The…     

PTEN, a general negative regulator of cyclin D expression

The tumor-suppressor phosphatase with tensin homology （PTEN） is frequently mutated in many malignancies and is one of the most well studied tumor suppressor genes [ 1, 2]. PTEN, a lipid and protein dual phosphatase, plays a vital role in embryonic development, cell growth, apoptosis and cell migration. The well-known function of PTEN is phosphatidylinositol-3 （PI3）-phosphatase, which functions as a negative regulator of the PI3 kinase （PI3K） pathway. It is well established that PTEN regulates the G I-S transition by modulating the expression of cyclin D 1 and p27gipl.     

Mechanisms of cancer metastasis to the bone

Some of the most common human cancers, including breast cancer, prostate cancer, and lung cancer, metastasize with avidity to bone. What is the basis for their preferential growth within the bone microenvironment? Bidirectional interactions between tumor cells and cells that make up bone result in a selective advantage for tumor growth and can lead to bone destruction or new bone matrix deposition. This review discusses our current understanding of the molecular components and mechanisms that are responsible for those interactions.     

Overexpression of human transforming growth factor-beta1 using a recombinant CHO cell expression system

Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) is secreted by most cells as a high molecular weight latent complex, which consists of latent TGF-beta1 disulfide bonded to latent TGF-beta1-binding protein (LTBP). Current recombinant expression systems yield less than 1-2 mg of the mature TGF-beta1 per liter of cell culture medium. In an effort to produce large quantities of the recombinant cytokine for structural studies, we have constructed a mammalian expression system based on a modified pcDNA3.1(+) vector with a glutamine synthetase gene inserted for gene amplification. The leader peptide of TGF-beta1 was replaced with that of rat serum albumin, and an eight-histidine tag was inserted immediately after the leader sequence to facilitate protein purification. In addition, Cys 33 of TGF-beta1, which forms a disulfide bond with LTBP, was replaced by a serine residue. The resulting expression construct produced a stable clone expressing 30 mg of mature TGF-beta1 per liter of spent medium. Purified TGF-beta1 bound with high affinity to its type II receptor with a solution dissociation constant of approximately 70 nM, and was fully active in both a Mv1Lu cell growth inhibition assay and in a PAI-1 luciferase reporter assay. Owing to similarities in the synthesis, secretion, and structure of TGF-beta family members, this recombinant expression system may also be applied to the overexpression of other TGF-beta isomers and even to members of the TGF-beta superfamily to facilitate their preparation.     

N-acetyl-L-cysteine abrogates fibrogenic properties of fibroblasts isolated from Dupuytren's disease by blunting TGF-beta signalling

Dupuytren's disease, a benign fibroproliferative disorder of the palmar fascia, represents an ideal model to study tissue fibrosis. Transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and its downstream Smad signalling system is well established as a key player during fibrogenesis. Thus, targeting this basic pathomechanism seems suitable to establish new treatment strategies. One such promising treatment involves the substance N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), shown to have antifibrotic properties in hepatic stellate cells and rat fibroblasts. In order to investigate antifibrotic effects of N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), fibroblasts were isolated from surgically resected fibrotic palmar tissues (Dupuytren fibroblasts, DF) and exposed to different concentrations of NAC and recombinant TGF-beta1. Fibroblasts isolated from tendon pulleys served as controls (control fibroblasts, CF). Smad signalling was investigated by a Smad binding element driven reporter gene analysis. Both cell types express TGF-beta1, indicating autocrine signalling in DF and CF. This was confirmed by comparing reporter gene activity from LacZ and Smad7 adenovirus infected cells. NAC treatment resulted in abrogation of Smad mediated signalling comparable to ectopically overexpressed Smad7, even when the cells were stimulated with recombinant TGF-beta1 or ectopically expressed a constitutively active TGF-beta receptor type I. Additionally, NAC dose-dependently decreased expression of three major indicators of impaired fibrotic matrix turnover, namely alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA), alpha 1 type I procollagen (Col1A1), and plasminogen activator inhibitor-type I (PAI-1). Our results suggest that TGF-beta signalling and subsequent expression of fibrogenesis related proteins in Dupuytren's disease is abrogated by NAC thus providing a basis for a therapeutic strategy in Dupuytren's disease and other fibroproliferative disorders.     

Expression of soluble recombinant TGF-beta type II receptor fused with the Fc portion of human IgG1 (sTbetaRII-Fc) in NS0 cells

We have constructed and expressed recombinant chimeric soluble TGF-beta type II receptor fused with the Fc portion of human IgG1 (sTbetaRII-Fc) in NS0 mouse myeloma cells and isolated cell lines constitutively secreting very high levels of biologically active protein. The GS-NS0 expression system takes advantage of the strong human cytomegalovirus immediate early promoter expression vector and glutamine synthetase as a selectable marker. The recombinant chimeric receptor could be produced in high amounts and efficiently purified by one step chromatography on a protein A column. Biochemical studies revealed that recombinant sTbetaRII-Fc binds native TGF-beta1 and TGF-beta3 isoforms and neutralizes their activity in vitro.     

P311 binds to the latency associated protein and downregulates the expression of TGF-beta1 and TGF-beta2

P311 is an 8-kDa protein originally found in neurons and muscle. We recently showed that expression of P311 in NIH 3T3 cells induced a myofibroblast phenotype with low TGF-beta1 expression. Here we demonstrate that P311 downregulates not only TGF-beta1, but also TGF-beta2, expression, with no effect on TGF-beta3. In addition, P311 interacts with TGF-beta2 in a yeast two-hybrid system through a sequence encompassing part of the TGF-beta latent associated protein (LAP) and part of mature TGF-beta2. Coimmunoprecipitations demonstrated interaction between P311 and TGF-beta1 and 2, but not TGF-beta3. Additional coimmunoprecipitations after introducing LAP or mature TGF-beta1 into cells demonstrated P311 binding to LAP, but not to mature TGF-beta. P311 has a conserved PEST domain, which generally serves as a rapid degradation signal. Deletion of the PEST domain reversed the effect of P311 on TGF-beta isoforms. Finally, Smad3 activity was decreased in P311-expressing cells, but was corrected by exogenous TGF-beta1 treatment, which also elevated TGF-beta1 mRNA level. This suggested that P311 downregulates TGF-beta1 and 2 in part by blocking TGF-beta autoinduction.     

Recombinant expression of biologically active rat leptin in Escherichia coli

Leptin is a 16-kDa nonglycosylated hormone that is produced in mature adipocytes and which acts primarily in the hypothalamus to reduce food intake and body weight. While the rat is a representative laboratory animal model in obesity research, so far recombinant rat leptin was not available. In the present study, rat leptin was recombinantly expressed in Escherichia coli and purified in a bioactive form to provide a further tool for the analysis of leptin functions in rats. Leptin cDNA was cloned by RT-PCR from total RNA of SD rat adipocytes, and overexpression was achieved by subcloning the leptin cDNA into the pET-29a vector, which enabled the recombinant expression of rat leptin as an S-peptide-tagged fusion protein. Since the fusion proteins were expressed in inclusion bodies, after purification of the insoluble fraction, leptin proteins were refolded by sequential dialysis into physiological buffers. The biological activity of this recombinant protein was confirmed in proliferation assays using leptin-sensitive rat insulinoma cells as well as a newly developed leptin-sensitive luciferase assay system. The specific binding of the S-tagged leptin to leptin-receptor-expressing cells was further shown by flow cytometry using fluorescence-conjugated S-proteins.     

Astrocyte-derived TGF-beta 2 and NGF differentially regulate neural recognition molecule expression by cultured astrocytes

Because of the importance of neural recognition molecules expressed by glial cells to mediate interactions with neurons, growth factors and cytokines known to be functional during morphogenesis and in diseases of the nervous system were studied for their effects on recognition molecule expression by cultured immature and mature astrocytes from several brain regions. In cultures of immature astrocytes, transforming growth factors-beta 1 (TGF-beta 1) and -beta 2 (TGF-beta 2) and nerve growth factor (NGF) increased expression of the neural adhesion molecule L1, leading to a glia-mediated L1-specific increase in neurite outgrowth of dorsal root ganglion neurons on the astrocyte substrate. L1 expression induced by TGF-beta was inhibited by addition of antibodies to NGF, suggesting that TGF-beta influences L1 expression by modulating production of NGF by astrocytes. TGF-beta 1 and -beta 2 decreased expression of N-CAM by immature astrocytes. Since N-CAM expression was not affected by NGF and antibodies to NGF did not abolish the TGF-beta-induced decrease in N-CAM expression, NGF did not appear to be the mediator for regulating expression of N-CAM. Expression of the adhesion molecule on glia (AMOG) was not affected by any factor. NGF and TGF-beta 2 in latent form, but not TGF-beta 1 were found in the culture supernatants. Addition of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta), interleukin-6 (IL-6), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), or basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) to the cultures did not change recognition molecule expression. REcognition molecule expression by mature astrocytes was not found to be modified by any of the factors tested. In view of the observation that levels of L1 and N-CAM expression correlated with the presence of TGF-beta 2 and NGF in the culture supernatants of immature astrocytes, an autocrine regulatory mechanism for recognition molecule expression by these cells is suggested to play a crucial role in regulation of neuron-glia interactions.     

Functional analysis of cathepsin B-like cysteine proteases from Leishmania donovani complex. Evidence for the activation of latent transforming growth factor beta

Cathepsin B-like genes from Leishmania donovani and Leishmania chagasi have been isolated and characterized. It is a single gene, which is constitutively expressed in all the life cycle stages of the parasite. Studies using cathepsin B-specific inhibitor treatment suggested that cathepsin B does not seem to play a role in the promastigote stages of the parasite, however it aids in the parasite survival within the host macrophages. Antisense mRNA inhibition of cathepsin B gene also revealed that it plays an important role in the parasite survival within the host macrophages. Furthermore, for the first time, we have shown that Leishmania whole cell lysates as well as the recombinant cathepsin B protein cleaved human recombinant latent transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 into a mature peptide releasing the latency associated protein, in a cell-free incubation system. Mink lung epithelial cell growth inhibition assay revealed that the cleaved TGF-beta1 was biologically active, suggesting that Leishmania cathepsin B can cleave latent TGF-beta1 into mature and active form. These results suggest that cathepsin B plays an important role in Leishmania survival within the host macrophages by activating latent TGF-beta1.     

Molecular events in the processing of recombinant type 1 pre-pro-transforming growth factor beta to the mature polypeptide.

Recently, the simian type 1 transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta 1) cDNA was expressed at high levels in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells by dihydrofolate reductase-induced gene amplification (L.E. Gentry, N.R. Webb, G.J. Lim, A.M. Brunner, J.E. Ranchalis, D.R. Twardzik, M.N. Lioubin, H. Marquardt, and A.F. Purchio, Mol. Cell. Biol. 7:3418-3427, 1987). We have now purified and characterized the recombinant proteins released by these cells. Analyses of the precursor proteins by amino acid sequencing identified potentially important proteolytic processing sites. Signal peptide cleavage occurs at the Gly-29-Leu-30 peptide bond of pre-pro-TGF-beta 1, yielding pro-TGF-beta 1 (30 to 390). In addition, proteolytic processing of the precursor to yield mature TGF-beta 1 occurs at the dibasic cleavage site immediately preceding Ala-279, indicating that CHO cells possess the appropriate processing enzyme. Greater than 95% of the biological activity detected in the conditioned medium of the CHO transfectant was due to mature, properly processed growth factor. Highly purified recombinant TGF-beta 1 had the same specific biological activity as natural TGF-beta 1. The concentration of TGF-beta 1 required for half-maximal inhibition of Mv1Lu mink lung epithelial cell growth was approximately 1 to 2 pM. Purified precursor inhibited mink lung cell proliferation at 50 to 60 pM concentrations. The purified precursor preparation was shown to consist of pro-TGF-beta 1 (30 to 390), the pro region of the precursor (30 to 278), and mature TGF-beta 1 (279 to 390) interlinked by at least one disulfide bond with the pro portion of the precursor. These recombinant forms of TGF-beta1 should prove useful for further structural and functional studies.     

Activation of paracrine TGF-beta1 signaling upon stimulation and degranulation of rat serosal mast cells: a novel function for chymase.

As a source of transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1), mast cells have been implicated as potential effector cells in many pathological processes. However, the mechanisms by which mast cells express, secrete, and activate TGF-beta1 have remained vague. We show here by means of RT-PCR, immunoblotting, and immunocytochemistry that isolated rat peritoneal mast cells synthesize and store large latent TGF-beta1 in their chymase 1-containing secretory granules. Mast cell stimulation and degranulation results in rapid secretion of the latent TGF-beta1, which is converted by chymase 1 into an active form recognized by the type II TGF-beta serine/threonine kinase receptor (TbetaRII). Thus, mast cells secrete active TGF-beta1 by a unique secretory mechanism in which latent TGF-beta1 and the activating enzyme chymase 1 are coreleased. The activation of latent TGF-beta1 specifically by chymase was verified using recombinant human latent TGF-beta1 and recombinant human chymase. In isolated TbetaRI- and TbetaRII-expressing peritoneal macrophages, the activated TGF-beta1 induces the expression of the plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1), whereas in the mast cells, the levels of TbetaRI, TbetaRII, and PAI-1 expression were below detection. Selective stimulation of mast cells in vivo in the rat peritoneal cavity leads to rapid overexpression of TGF-beta1 in peritoneal mast cells and of TbetaRs in peritoneal macrophages. These data strongly suggest that mast cells can act as potent paracrine effector cells both by secreting active TGF-beta1 and by enhancing its response in target cells.