Spontaneous quantity discrimination in crickets

Recent studies have reported that the ability to discriminate among quantities is not a prerogative of vertebrates. Ants, bees, and spiders can solve tasks in which they are required to discriminate between groups of objects. Although many studies regarding numerical cognition on invertebrates proposed a proto‐counting system, more control experiments for non‐numerical variables are necessary to confirm this hypothesis. Here, we developed a new method to investigate quantity discrimination abilities in invertebrates. We investigated the spontaneous choice of a cricket, Acheta domesticus. We exploited its natural shelter‐seeking behavior by presenting sets of geometrical shapes that simulated potential shelters. In a dichotomous choice between sets of geometrical black shapes differing in number of items, the majority of crickets chose the set containing the larger numerosity up to 2 versus 3 items. Control experiments suggested that crickets discriminated between sets consisting of different numbers of items by attending to continuous variables (i.e., convex hull and cumulative surface area) rather than by attending to numerosity. Secondly, when discriminating between single geometrical shapes, crickets attend to the width but not to the height of the stimuli.     

Coyotes (Canis latrans) and the matching law

Environmental change is accelerating due to anthropogenic influence. Species that have greater behavioral flexibility may be better adapted to exploit new or constantly changing habitats. There are few mammals and even fewer carnivores that better illustrate widespread adaptability and behavioral flexibility in the wake of human disturbance than coyotes (Canis latrans). Yet how such predators successfully track resources, enabling them to survive and extend their range in stochastic environments remains unknown. We tested eight wild-born, captive coyotes individually on an operant two-choice test using concurrent variable interval (VI) schedules. We held the overall rate of reinforcement constant but manipulated the ratio of reinforcement available from the two choices. We analyzed sensitivity of coyotes’ tracking of resource change by fitting the generalized matching equation to the data. Results showed all coyotes efficiently tracked changes in reinforcement ratios within the first few sessions of each new condition and matched their relative rate of foraging time to relative rate of resources. We suggest the matching paradigm provides a methodology to explore coyote foraging strategies, and a potential framework to compare behavioral flexibility across species, by measuring the ability to track resource change under variable resource conditions.     

Prey Responses to Predator's Sounds: A Review and Empirical Study

Many animals assess their risk of predation by listening to and evaluating predators' vocalizations. We reviewed the literature to draw generalizations about predator discrimination abilities, the retention of these abilities over evolutionary time, and the potential underlying proximate mechanisms responsible for discrimination. Broadly, we found that some prey possess an ability to respond to a predator after having been evolutionarily isolated from a specific predator (i.e., predators are allopatric) and that some prey are predisposed to respond to certain types of predators that they coevolved with but without having ecological experience. However, these types of studies are lacking, and relatively, few studies have examined predator discrimination abilities in ungulates. To begin addressing these knowledge gaps, we performed field experiments on Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in which we investigated the ability of deer to discriminate among familiar predators [coyotes (Canis latrans) and mountain lions (Puma concolor)] and an evolutionary relevant predator with which deer have had no recent exposure [locally extinct wolves (Canis lupus)]. We found that Mule deer respond to and discriminate among predators based on predator vocalizations and have retained an ability to respond to wolves that have been extinct from the study area since the early 20th century. Previous playback studies have shown that responses vary among human‐habituated and non‐habituated populations and differ according to human proximity. Deer greater than 0.5 km from human residences allocated more time to heightened responses both before and after stimulus playback. Our findings may help predict how prey–predator interactions may change as a result of the recovering wolf population with a basis in ecological and evolutionary experience in predator discrimination and desensitization.     

Comparison of Mexican Wolf and Coyote Diets in Arizona and New Mexico

ABSTRACT Interactions between wolves (Canis lupus) and coyotes (C. latrans) can have significant impacts on their distribution and abundance. We compared diets of recently translocated Mexican wolves (C. l. baileyi) with diets of resident coyotes in Arizona and New Mexico, USA. We systematically collected scats during 2000 and 2001. Coyote diet was composed mostly of mammalian species, followed by vegetation and insects. Elk (Cervus elaphus) was the most common item in coyote scats. Mexican wolf diet had a higher proportion of large mammals and fewer small mammals than coyote diet; however, elk was also the most common food item in Mexican wolf scats. Our results suggest that Mexican wolf diet was more similar to coyote diet than previously reported, but coyotes had more seasonal variation. Considering results in other areas, we expect that Mexican wolves will have a negative impact on coyotes through direct mortality and possibly competition. Reintroduction of Mexican wolves may have great impacts on communities by changing relationships among other predators and their prey.     

Large number discrimination by mosquitofish

Background

Recent studies have demonstrated that fish display rudimentary numerical abilities similar to those observed in mammals and birds. The mechanisms underlying the discrimination of small quantities (<4) were recently investigated while, to date, no study has examined the discrimination of large numerosities in fish.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Subjects were trained to discriminate between two sets of small geometric figures using social reinforcement. In the first experiment mosquitofish were required to discriminate 4 from 8 objects with or without experimental control of the continuous variables that co-vary with number (area, space, density, total luminance). Results showed that fish can use the sole numerical information to compare quantities but that they preferentially use cumulative surface area as a proxy of the number when this information is available. A second experiment investigated the influence of the total number of elements to discriminate large quantities. Fish proved to be able to discriminate up to 100 vs. 200 objects, without showing any significant decrease in accuracy compared with the 4 vs. 8 discrimination. The third experiment investigated the influence of the ratio between the numerosities. Performance was found to decrease when decreasing the numerical distance. Fish were able to discriminate numbers when ratios were 1∶2 or 2∶3 but not when the ratio was 3∶4. The performance of a sample of undergraduate students, tested non-verbally using the same sets of stimuli, largely overlapped that of fish.

Conclusions/Significance

Fish are able to use pure numerical information when discriminating between quantities larger than 4 units. As observed in human and non-human primates, the numerical system of fish appears to have virtually no upper limit while the numerical ratio has a clear effect on performance. These similarities further reinforce the view of a common origin of non-verbal numerical systems in all vertebrates.     

Large Number Discrimination in Newborn Fish

Quantitative abilities have been reported in a wide range of species, including fish. Recent studies have shown that adult guppies (Poecilia reticulata) can spontaneously select the larger number of conspecifics. In particular the evidence collected in literature suggest the existence of two distinct systems of number representation: a precise system up to 4 units, and an approximate system for larger numbers. Spontaneous numerical abilities, however, seem to be limited to 4 units at birth and it is currently unclear whether or not the large number system is absent during the first days of life. In the present study, we investigated whether newborn guppies can be trained to discriminate between large quantities. Subjects were required to discriminate between groups of dots with a 0.50 ratio (e.g., 7 vs. 14) in order to obtain a food reward. To dissociate the roles of number and continuous quantities that co-vary with numerical information (such as cumulative surface area, space and density), three different experiments were set up: in Exp. 1 number and continuous quantities were simultaneously available. In Exp. 2 we controlled for continuous quantities and only numerical information was available; in Exp. 3 numerical information was made irrelevant and only continuous quantities were available. Subjects successfully solved the tasks in Exp. 1 and 2, providing the first evidence of large number discrimination in newborn fish. No discrimination was found in experiment 3, meaning that number acuity is better than spatial acuity. A comparison with the onset of numerical abilities observed in shoal-choice tests suggests that training procedures can promote the development of numerical abilities in guppies.     

Greater consumption of protein‐poor anthropogenic food by urban relative to rural coyotes increases diet breadth and potential for human–wildlife conflict

Reports of encounters between people and generalist urban‐adapted carnivores are increasing around the world. In North America, coyotes Canis latrans are among the carnivores that appear to be especially capable of incorporating novel anthropogenic food types, including those found in cities. Consuming anthropogenic food may benefit coyotes by increasing their dietary diversity, but it may also lead to increased interactions and conflicts with humans. To test these hypotheses, we compared the diets of urban and rural coyotes from two urban and three rural sites spanning 32 200 km² in Alberta, Canada. We analyzed scat samples to calculate diet diversity at the level of both individuals (species per scat) and populations (Shannon index) and to determine the frequency of anthropogenic food consumption. We complemented this comparison with stable isotope analyses of hair samples taken from individual urban and rural coyotes that were or were not reported by the public for repeatedly visiting backyards and schoolyards during the day. Relative to rural coyotes, urban coyotes had more diverse diets at the level of both individuals and populations, consumed anthropogenic food more often, and animals less often, than rural coyotes. Although urban coyotes assimilated more anthropogenic food than the rural coyotes overall, the urban coyotes reported for conflict assimilated less protein and were more likely to be diseased. Our results suggest that processed anthropogenic food may contribute to the success of urban coyotes, but does not entirely correlate with conflict. Instead, some seemingly innocuous, but low‐protein food sources such as bird feeders, compost, and cultivated fruit trees may contribute disproportionately to encounters with people for coyotes and other urban‐adapted opportunistic carnivores.     

Responses of sympatric canids to human development revealed through citizen science

Measuring wildlife responses to anthropogenic activities often requires long‐term, large‐scale datasets that are difficult to collect. This is particularly true for rare or cryptic species, which includes many mammalian carnivores. Citizen science, in which members of the public participate in scientific work, can facilitate collection of large datasets while increasing public awareness of wildlife research and conservation. Hunters provide unique benefits for citizen science given their knowledge and interest in outdoor activities. We examined how anthropogenic changes to land cover impacted relative abundance of two sympatric canids, coyote (Canis latrans), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) at a large spatial scale. In order to assess how land cover affected canids at this scale, we used citizen science data from bow hunter sighting logs collected throughout New York State, USA, during 2004–2017. We found that the two species had contrasting responses to development, with red foxes positively correlated and coyotes negatively correlated with the percentage of low‐density development. Red foxes also responded positively to agriculture, but less so when agricultural habitat was fragmented. Agriculture provides food and denning resources for red foxes, whereas coyotes may select forested areas for denning. Though coyotes and red foxes compete in areas of sympatry, we did not find a relationship between species abundance, likely a consequence of the coarse spatial resolution used. Red foxes may be able to coexist with coyotes by altering their diets and habitat use, or by maintaining territories in small areas between coyote territories. Our study shows the value of citizen science, and particularly hunters, in collection of long‐term data across large areas (i.e., the entire state of New York) that otherwise would unlikely be obtained.     

Can lemurs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Eulemur fulvus</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">E. macaco</Emphasis>) use abstract representations of quantities to master the reverse-reward contingency task?

In previous studies we demonstrated that brown and black lemurs (Eulemur fulvus and E. macaco) showed self-control abilities under a reverse-reward contingency. They were able to significantly select the smaller quantity of food to be rewarded with the larger one and to generalize this ability when presented with two rewards that differed in quality. In the present study, previously trained subjects had to choose between graphic representations of two different quantities of food under the reverse-reward contingency. Three out of four subjects learned to associate a graphic representation of the reward with the corresponding quantity. Only one subject consistently selected the representation of the smaller quantity to be rewarded with the larger quantity of food and therefore showed abstraction as well as relative numerousness skills. Indeed, she was able to discriminate between representations of different quantities and to ordinate them. We discuss how primates mentally represent food quantities and how self-control is involved in foraging strategies.     

Can Coyotes Affect Deer Populations in Southeastern North America?

ABSTRACT The coyote (Canis latrans) is a recent addition to the fauna of eastern North America, and in many areas coyote populations have been established for only a decade or two. Although coyotes are known predators of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in their historic range, effects this new predator may have on eastern deer populations have received little attention. We speculated that in the southeastern United States, coyotes may be affecting deer recruitment, and we present 5 lines of evidence that suggest this possibility. First, the statewide deer population in South Carolina has declined coincident with the establishment and increase in the coyote population. Second, data sets from the Savannah River Site (SRS) in South Carolina indicate a new mortality source affecting the deer population concurrent with the increase in coyotes. Third, an index of deer recruitment at SRS declined during the period of increase in coyotes. Fourth, food habits data from SRS indicate that fawns are an important food item for coyotes during summer. Finally, recent research from Alabama documented significant coyote predation on fawns there. Although this evidence does not establish cause and effect between coyotes and observed declines in deer recruitment, we argue that additional research should proactively address this topic in the region. We identified several important questions on the nature of the deer—coyote relationship in the East.     

Home-range use by coyotes in Idaho

Radio-collared coyotes (Canis latrans) were relocated every 15 min during continuous 24-h sampling periods. The data were used to estimate patterns of home-range use by coyotes. Utilization of the the home range was found to vary spatially and behaviourally. Spatial use was determined by relative amounts of time coyotes spent and amounts of distance they travelled within each are of their home ranges. Behavioural use was based on identification of three types of movement patterns that werew postulated to represent three general kinds of behaviour: (1) resting behaviour, (2) hunting or investigative behavour, and (3) ranging or traveling behaviour. Spatial and behavioural uses of the home range area were found to be interrelated; core areas in which animals spent most of their time were also used primarily for resting or hunting. In areas in which animals spent little time, coyotes exhibited primarily ranging behaviour. Use patterns were postulated to be the result of coyotes' selection of areas due to unique vegetal, faunal, or physiogfaphic characteristics. Temporal variatrions in home-range use were found and were postulated to result from seasonal and diel changes in coyote behaviour due to the annual reproductive cycle, the seasonal and diel cycle of temperature, possible cycles in prey behaviour.     

Gustatory intensity discrimination in rat NTS: a tool for the evaluation of neural coding theories

Summary The neural coding of taste quality in vertebrates currently is addressed by the labeledline and the across-fiber pattern theory. Experimental tests that have tried to distinguish between these theories by manipulating taste quality have been problematic in that both are fairly successful. However, the two theories maintain that different numbers of neurons participate in coding the presence of a substance. In the labeled-line theory, only those neurons labeled by that substance are supposed to be involved, whereas in the across-fiber pattern theory, all neurons responding to the substance are taken into account. We therefore expected that the theories might predict different intensity discriminating abilities among the four classical taste stimuli, which could provide a less equivocal test between the theories.A previous paper (Maes 1984) described a model for the neural basis of intensity discrimination, based on signal-detection theory. In the present paper, experimental data obtained from single neurons in the nucleus of the solitary tract of rat are analyzed in terms of this model. Whole-mouth stimulation with the four classical taste substances was used. For both theories, predictions of the intensity discriminating acuity for the four substances were derived, using different response analysis intervals, and including two plausible non-linearities in neural processing.The acuity profile across the four stimuli (consisting of the reciprocals of the four differential thresholds) turned out to be sensitive to the choice of coding theory and non-linearity. The interval chosen for response analysis had a strong effect. The predicted profiles should be checked against behavioral data on intensity discrimination in rat, but since such data are not yet available, a comparison was made with human psychophysical data, for illustrative purposes. It appeared that a unique combination of variables (tonic part of the response, across-fiber pattern coding with a contrast enhancement type of non-linearity) could be selected to match the psychophysical profile.In the Discussion, special attention is paid to the fundamental differences between the two coding theories, to the relevance of whole-mouth stimulation, and to the informational significance of various parts of the phasic/tonic response.Abbreviations AFP across-fiber pattern - CT chorda tympani - DA discrimination acuity - DT differential threshold - H sour - LL labeled line - N salty - NTS nucleus tractus solitarius - PTA pontine taste area - Q bitter - S sweet     

Ontogeny of numerical abilities in fish

Background

It has been hypothesised that human adults, infants, and non-human primates share two non-verbal systems for enumerating objects, one for representing precisely small quantities (up to 3–4 items) and one for representing approximately larger quantities. Recent studies exploiting fish''s spontaneous tendency to join the larger group showed that their ability in numerical discrimination closely resembles that of primates but little is known as to whether these capacities are innate or acquired.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used the spontaneous tendency to join the larger shoal to study the limits of the quantity discrimination of newborn and juvenile guppies. One-day old fish chose the larger shoal when the choice was between numbers in the small quantity range, 2 vs. 3 fish, but not when they had to choose between large numbers, 4 vs. 8 or 4 vs. 12, although the numerical ratio was larger in the latter case. To investigate the relative role of maturation and experience in large number discrimination, fish were raised in pairs (with no numerical experience) or in large social groups and tested at three ages. Forty-day old guppies from both treatments were able to discriminate 4 vs. 8 fish while at 20 days this was only observed in fish grown in groups. Control experiments showed that these capacities were maintained after guppies were prevented from using non numerical perceptual variables that co-vary with numerosity.

Conclusions/Significance

Overall, our results suggest the ability of guppies to discriminate small numbers is innate and is displayed immediately at birth while discrimination of large numbers emerges later as a result of both maturation and social experience. This developmental dissociation suggests that fish like primates might have separate systems for small and large number representation.     

Coyote Habitat Selection and Management Implications for the Gaspésie Caribou

ABSTRACT Anthropogenic disturbances can promote establishment and growth of predator populations in areas where secondary prey can then become threatened. In this study, we investigated habitat selection of eastern coyotes (Canis latrans), a relatively new predator in the vicinity of an endangered population of caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou). We hypothesized that coyotes in the boreal forest depend mainly on disturbed habitat, particularly that of anthropogenic origin, because these habitats provide increased food accessibility. Coyotes would likely take advantage of moose (Alces alces) carcasses, berries, and snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) found in open habitats created by logging. To test these predictions, we described coyote diet and habitat selection at different spatial and temporal levels and then compared resource availability between habitats. To do so, we installed Global Positioning System radiocollars on 23 individual coyotes in the Gaspésie Peninsula, eastern Québec, Canada. Coyotes selected clear-cuts of 5–20 years and avoided mature coniferous forests both at the landscape and home-range levels. Clear-cuts of 5–20 years were found to contain a high availability of moose carcasses and berries, and vulnerability of snowshoe hares is known to increase in clear-cuts. The importance of these 3 food resources was confirmed by the characteristics of core areas used by coyotes and diet analysis. Moose remains were found at 45% of core areas and coyote diet comprised 51% moose on an annual basis. Anthropogenic disturbances in the boreal forest thus seem to benefit coyotes. Our results indicated that the relationship between coyotes and caribou likely involves spillover predation. This knowledge allows managers to consider spillover predation by coyotes as a possible threat for endangered caribou population when the predator depends mainly on habitat of anthropogenic origin and to suggest methods to alleviate it when developing management plans.     

Brown Lemurs (Eulemur fulvus) Can Master the Qualitative Version of the Reverse-Reward Contingency

Behavioral flexibility that requires behavioral inhibition has important fitness consequences. One task commonly used to assess behavioral inhibition is the reverse-reward task in which the subject is rewarded by the non selected items. Lemurs were tested for their ability to solve the qualitative version of the reverse-reward task with the choice between identical quantities of different food items instead of different quantities of the same food. Two of four subjects mastered the task without a correction procedure and were able to generalize the acquired rule to novel combinations of food. One of the two subjects competent on the quality version of the task could transfer this ability to different quantities of the same food. Our results are compared to lemurs’ performances when tested under the quantitative version in a previous study and those of capuchin monkeys tested under a similar paradigm. The whole results suggest that the qualitative version of the reverse-reward task may be easier to master than its quantitative counterpart and that lemurs perform better than capuchin monkeys as they were able to later transfer the learning rule to the quantitative version of the task.     

Poor health is associated with use of anthropogenic resources in an urban carnivore

Rates of encounters between humans and wildlife are increasing in cities around the world, especially when wildlife overlap with people in time, space and resources. Coyotes (Canis latrans) can make use of anthropogenic resources and reported rates of conflict have increased in cities across North America. This increase may be linked to individual differences in the use of human food and developed areas. We compared the relationships between coyote age, sex or health and the use of anthropogenic resources, which we defined as using developed areas over large home ranges, being active during the day, and consuming anthropogenic food. To do so, we applied GPS collars to 19 coyotes and sampled hair for stable isotope analysis. Eleven coyotes appeared to be healthy and eight were visibly infested with sarcoptic mange (Sarcoptes scabiei), a mite that causes hair loss. Diseased coyotes used more developed areas, had larger monthly home ranges, were more active during the day, and assimilated less protein than coyotes that appeared to be healthy. We speculate that anthropogenic food provides a low-quality but easily accessible food source for diseased coyotes, which in turn may increase reliance on it and other anthropogenic resources to promote encounters with people.     

Coyote Investigative Behavior Following Removal of Novel Stimuli

ABSTRACT Because coyotes (Canis latrans) show an aversion to novel objects, we examined the effects of the presence and removal of repellent and attractive stimuli on coyote behavior. We found a greater proportion of captive coyotes investigated 10-cm-tall cones (0.95) compared to 90-cm-tall cones (0.68) and control sites (0.81), and spent longer periods (P < 0.001 in all instances) investigating small cones (x̄ = 465 sec), compared to large cones (x̄ = 212 sec) and control sites (x̄ = 45 sec). However, investigation times at sites following removal of large cones were 1.6 and 2.3 times greater than investigation times at sites following removal of small cones and the control, respectively. Results from pen studies were supported by a field study. Wild coyotes in south Texas visited 43% of small cones but did not visit large cones. Following removal of cones, visits to small cone stations decreased to 29%, whereas coyotes visited 43% of large cone stations. Thus, we observed a direct relationship between aversion toward large novel objects and subsequent attraction to sites following their removal among both captive and wild coyotes. Based upon our results, we suggest that placing large novel objects over traps that are set and removing such objects after a few days, with the subsequent addition of an olfactory attractant, may increase exploratory behavior and capture of coyotes.     

The influence of snow on lynx and coyote movements: does morphology affect behavior?

Summary We studied sympatric lynx (Lynx canadensis) and coyotes (Canis latrans) to assess how morphological disadvantages to locomotion over snow affected movement patterns. Both species are of similar size and mass, but the feet of lynx are much larger, and coyotes were found to have 4.1–8.8 times the foot-load (ratio of body mass to foot area) of lynx. This resulted in greater mean sinking depths of coyote limbs, although the magnitude of the difference was less than that in foot-load. Coyotes exhibited stronger use of behavioral patterns that reduced negative effects of snow on movements. Coyotes were most abundant at low elevations where snow was shallow, whereas lynx were mostly at higher elevations. Coyotes also used areas at both elevations where snow was shallower than average, while lynx used areas where snow was deeper. further, both species used travel routes where snow was shallower than it was near the track. Coyotes traveled on harder snow and used trails more frequently, thereby tending to reduce sinking depths to those similar to lynx. The behavioral repertoire of coyotes reduced the morphological advantage of large feet possessed by lynx; however, overall sinking depths were still greater in coyotes. Snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) were the main prey of both species, and their foot-load was less than that of either predator. Hare kills by coyotes occurred after fewer bounds than did those by lynx, and the large difference between foot-loads of both species of predators may have forced coyotes to ambush rather than chase hares, as did lynx.     

Strontium-calcium discriminationin vitro by rat tissues

Uptake of⁸⁹Sr and⁴⁵Ca by 15 soft tissues of adult rat was studiedin vitro to assess the extent of discrimination between Sr and Ca. While brain, kidney, placenta and uterus have lower uptake of⁸⁹Sr and 45 Ca that of diaphragm, lactating mammary gland, skeletal muscle, skin, spleen and testes is higher. Tissues with medium range uptake are heart, small intestine, liver, lung, non-lactating mammary gland and ovary. The 6 tissues displaying discriminating ability, as expressed by⁸⁹Sr/⁴⁵Ca (tissue/medium), in the decreasing order are: small intestine, kidney, lactating mammary gland, placenta, diaphragm and heart. Non-lactating mammary gland and the other tissues did not differentiate between Sr and Ca. The efect of several enzyme inhibitors, compounds influencing Sr-Ca metabolism and other factors was studied in terms of the nature and mechanism of Sr-Ca discrimination.     

Estimating Coyote Densities with Local,Discrete Bayesian Capture-Recapture Models

Recent advances in noninvasive genetic sampling and spatial capture-recapture (SCR) techniques are particularly useful for monitoring cryptic wildlife species such as carnivores. In southern Arizona, USA, coyotes (Canis latrans) are thought to negatively affect endangered Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis), although no estimates of coyote abundance or monitoring programs exist. Sonoran pronghorn are provided supplemental feed and water in this region, resulting in areas where pronghorn and other species are congregated. Because of the higher density of artificial water sources for Sonoran pronghorn on the Cabeza Prieta National Wildlife Refuge (CPNWR), we predicted that coyote density would be higher relative to the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMGR), where artificial water sources are less dense. We used discrete Bayesian SCR models in a local evaluation approach to provide baseline estimates of coyote abundance and understand how coyote density varied between 2 contrasting areas of land use. We identified 106 individuals from scat samples across 3 sessions in 2013 and 2014 and achieved high genotyping and individual identification success rates (~78%). Encounter rates at water catchments were nearly 11 times higher compared to road and trail transects. As predicted, we found that coyote density was on average 2 times higher on the CPNWR (11.2 coyotes/100 km²) compared to the BMGR (5.3 coyotes/100 km²). The local evaluation approach significantly reduced computational time, making the discrete Bayesian approach more practical to implement across a large study area. Our study represents an important contribution towards developing a robust monitoring program for coyotes. We hope that our novel implementation of the local evaluation approach increases the ability of wildlife managers to understand the effects of land use and other ecological influences on large carnivore populations. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.