Genome size variation in butterflies (Insecta,Lepidotera, Papilionoidea): a thorough phylogenetic comparison

Butterflies have been of great interest to naturalists for centuries, and the study of butterflies has been an integral part of ecology and evolution ever since Darwin proposed his theory of natural selection in 1859. There are > 18 000 butterfly species worldwide, showing great diversity in morphological traits and ecological niches. Compared with butterfly diversity, however, patterns of genome size variation in butterflies remain poorly understood, especially in a phylogenetic context. Here, we sequenced and assembled the mitogenomes of 68 butterflies and measured the genome sizes (C-values) of 67 of them. We also assembled 10 mitogenomes using reads from GenBank. Among the assembled 78 mitogenomes, those from 59 species, 23 genera and one subfamily are reported for the first time. Combining with published data of mitogenomes and genome size, we explored the patterns in genome size variation for 106 butterfly species in a phylogenetic context based on analyses of mitogenomes from 264 species covering six families. Our results show that the genome size of butterflies has a 6.4-fold variation ranging from 0.203 pg (199 Mb) (Nymphalidae: Heliconius xanthocles) to 1.287 pg (1253 Mb) (Papilionidae: Parnassius orleans). Within families, the largest variation was found in Papilionidae (5.9-fold: 0.22–1.29 pg), followed by Nymphalidae (4.8-fold: 0.2–0.95 pg), Pieridae (4.4-fold: 0.22–0.97 pg), Hesperiidae (2.2-fold: 0.3–0.66 pg), Lycaenidae (2.6-fold: 0.39–1.02 pg) and Rioidinidae (1.8-fold: 0.48–0.87 pg). Our data also suggest that butterflies have an ancestral genome size of c. 0.5 pg, and some ancestral genome size increase or decrease events along different subfamilies or tribes produce the diversity of genome size variation in diverse butterflies. Our data provide novel insights into patterns of genome size variation in butterflies and are an important reference for future genome sequencing programmes.     

Diet breadth and host plant diversity of tropical- vs. temperate-zone herbivores: South-East Asian and West Palaearctic butterflies as a case study

1. Data on host plant associations of butterflies (Papilionoidea, excluding Hesperiidae) from two biogeographical regions were used to investigate (1) whether tropical herbivores are more narrowly specialized with regard to host plant choice than those of northern temperate zones, and (2) whether tropical butterflies show a greater diversity of host plant affiliations. 2. There was no evidence for a more restricted diet breadth of tropical butterflies, with diet breadth being measured as number of host plant families used per species. In the families Papilionidae, Pieridae, and Nymphalidae, host plant ranges of West Palaearctic and South-East Asian species are similar, whereas in one speciose group within the Lycaenidae, the Polyommatini, tropical species are significantly more polyphagous. 3. Diet breadth also differs among higher butterfly taxa. While Papilionidae, Pieridae, the nymphalid subfamilies Satyrinae, Morphinae, Libytheinae and Apaturinae, as well as the temperate-zone Polyommatini in the Lycaenidae are composed predominantly of host specialists, the degree of polyphagy is higher among the remaining nymphalid subfamilies and in many lycaenids. These results challenge strongly the view that tropical herbivores are generally more specialized in this regard than herbivores of higher latitudes. Rather, chemical constraints and phylogenetic conservatism shape host plant associations in many taxa in such a way that differences between temperate and tropical representatives are slight. 4. Host plant diversity, measured as the number of plant families used per butterfly family and by application of the log-series model, is much higher in South-East Asian Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae (the two largest families) than in their Western Palaearctic relatives. No such differences are observed in the Papilionidae and Pieridae (the two smaller families). Besides effects of sample size, the strong association of papilionid and pierid butterflies with plants characterized by a small set of classes of secondary plant compounds might generally restrict their capability to utilize a broader taxonomic range of host plants. 5. The results indicate that high floral diversity can be reflected by higher diversity of host plant affiliations of herbivores, but taxonomic idiosyncrasies render it difficult to draw generalized conclusions.     

秦岭国家植物园蝴蝶群落结构与多样性

为了查明秦岭国家植物园蝴蝶资源和多样性状况, 本研究选取了5种生境, 利用样线法进行了3年的蝴蝶多样性观测。结果表明: 秦岭国家植物园蝴蝶共有5科76属134种; 物种丰富度指数、物种多样性指数、均匀度指数和优势度指数分别为1.3295、3.4616、0.7068和0.7656; 其中蛱蝶科属数及物种数最多(33属65种), 凤蝶科最低(5属10种); 蛱蝶科物种多样性指数及物种丰富度指数最高, 分别为2.8525及1.3622; 凤蝶科多样性指数最低(1.4936); 粉蝶科物种丰富度指数最低(0.2790)。5种生境中, 随着植被丰富度的增加, 蝴蝶多样性指数上升。     

粤港澳大湾区主要农业区蝶类群落及其携粉特征研究

研究农业区蝶类群落的携粉特征可为揭示蝶类在农业生态系统中的传粉功能提供数据支撑。2020年7-8月对粤港澳大湾区主要农业区的28个调查样区开展蝶类群落调查并分析其携粉特征。结果表明,携粉蝴蝶种类比例为89.71%,携粉蝴蝶个体数量比例为78.88%。凤蝶科、粉蝶科、斑蝶科和珍蝶科的携粉蝴蝶种类比例高于其他各科;凤蝶科与斑蝶科的携粉蝴蝶个体数量比例高于其他各科。从不同携粉部位来看,翅(腹面)携粉的蝴蝶种类比例最高,足部携粉的蝴蝶个体数量比例最高,而腹部携粉的蝴蝶种类比例和个体数量比例均较低。     

是否低估了本地热带蝴蝶区系成分的丰富度?样带观察结果的剖析

作者利用在菲律宾吕宋岛Calumpang Lejos (Indang, Cavite) 地区以样带法收集的蝴蝶种数记录, 检验了类群记录是否低估了当地种数丰富度和多样性。在两年间长达340 h的457个样带调查中, 没有出现种数积累曲线突破情况。折叠估计、有偏纪录、丰富度的地区变化以及与群落生境有关的相对多度均支持当地蝴蝶区系丰富度被低估的观点。在样带调查中, 多样性及体色类型记录具有误差。这些误差反映在发现日期以及同种的科学命名日期, 并且涉及到菲律宾吕宋岛发现的所有物种, 且与蝴蝶的体型大小有关。数量较少、体型较小和不显眼的种类发现得较晚。在分类上亦有误差, 弄蝶科和灰蝶科比粉蝶科和蝶科稀少、体小且不显眼, 发现和命名较晚。翅型特征不明显的种类具有体型较小的趋势, 使所做的形态特征记录产生错误。我们发现菲律宾吕宋岛Calumpang Lejos (Indang, Cavite) 地区的稀有种类体型明显较小和特征较不明显。由于区域性样带调查偏差包括了灰蝶科但未包括弄蝶科, 因此偏差源于对树冠型蝴蝶种类的记录偏低。本文讨论了在其它生物区系以及热带蝴蝶保育上的应用, 认为今后需要使用误差小的新技术进行动物区系中物种丰富度的可靠估计。     

东莞莲花山自然保护区蝴蝶群落多样性研究

记述了东莞莲花山自然保护区的蝴蝶9科36属50种;分析了不同季节蝴蝶群落的特点和在科、属、种级分类下的多样性指数[H′(GS)、H′(G)、H′G(S)]．结果表明,物种丰富度以6月份最高为34,9、4、12月则分别为18、14、2;多样性指数也是以6月份最高为2．9041,9、4、12月则分别为2．5547、2．4842、0.1085;均匀度指数以4月份最高为0.9413,9、6、12月则分别为0.8827、0.8235、0.1565：优势种以12月份最明显,报喜斑粉蝶的优势度指数高达0.9773,其次,9月份为宽边黄凤蝶(0.2571)、6月份为巴黎凤蝶(0.2263)、4月亦为巴黎凤蝶(0.2174);各科蝴蝶物种丰富度、科、属的多样性指数和均匀度指数均以蛱蝶科为最高,分别为12、2．3992、1．9231、0.9655,凤蝶科、弄蝶科次之,个体数量以斑蝶科最大,粉蝶科、凤蝶科次之,而属内种的多样性指数则以凤蝶科最高(1．5456),蛱蝶科次之(0.4761)。     

On the surrogate value of red-listed butterflies for butterflies and grasshoppers: a case study in Grammos site of Natura 2000, Greece

We tested the surrogate value of butterflies, red-listed butterflies and grasshoppers for each other in terms of diversity patterns congruence and complementarity at a site in the NATURA 2000 network. Grammos Mountain is proposed as a new Prime Butterfly Area for Greece: it supports a total of 56 grasshopper species and 112 butterfly species, 24 of which are of European conservation concern (SPEC) and two of Prime Butterflies Area Project. We found a strong congruence in the species richness patterns of SPEC butterflies, butterflies and grasshoppers, because three common ecological factors influenced them: number of flower heads, altitude, and cover of low trees or bushes (Redundancy Analysis, CANOCO). Each complementarity network maintained quite well the species richness of the other two target groups (<18% average species loss). SPEC butterflies were the best surrogate group overall and therefore we propose that they should be monitored on a permanent basis.     

Species richness,abundance, distributional pattern and trait composition of butterfly assemblage change along an altitudinal gradient in the Gulmarg region of Jammu & Kashmir,India

Despite enormous diversity, abundance, and role in ecosystem processes, little is known about how butterflies differ across altitudinal gradients. For this, butterfly communities were investigated along an altitudinal gradient of 2700–3200 m a.s.l, along the Gulmarg region of Jammu & Kashmir, India. We aimed to determine how the altitudinal gradient and environmental factors affect the butterfly diversity and abundance. Our findings indicate that species richness and diversity are mainly affected by the synergism between climate and vegetation. Alpha diversity indices showed that butterfly communities were more diverse at lower elevations and declined significantly with increase in elevation. Overall, butterfly abundance and diversity is stronger at lower elevations and gradually keep dropping towards higher elevations because floristic diversity decreased on which butterflies rely for survival and propagation. A total of 2023 individuals of butterflies were recorded belonging to 40 species, represented by 27 genera and 05 families. Six survey sites (S I- S VI) were assessed for butterfly diversity from 2018 to 2020 in the Gulmarg region of Jammu & Kashmir. Across the survey, Nymphalidae was the most dominant family represented by 16 genera and 23 species, while Papilionidae and Hesperiidae were least dominant represented by 01 genera and 01 species each. Among the six collection sites selected, Site I was most dominant, represented by 16 genera and 21 species, while Site VI was least dominant, represented by 04 genera and 04 species.     

Species richness,abundance, distributional pattern and trait composition of butterfly assemblage change along an altitudinal gradient in the Gulmarg region of Jammu & Kashmir,India

Despite enormous diversity, abundance, and role in ecosystem processes, little is known about how butterflies differ across altitudinal gradients. For this, butterfly communities were investigated along an altitudinal gradient of 2700–3200 m a.s.l, along the Gulmarg region of Jammu & Kashmir, India. We aimed to determine how the altitudinal gradient and environmental factors affect the butterfly diversity and abundance. Our findings indicate that species richness and diversity are mainly affected by the synergism between climate and vegetation. Alpha diversity indices showed that butterfly communities were more diverse at lower elevations and declined significantly with increase in elevation. Overall, butterfly abundance and diversity is stronger at lower elevations and gradually keep dropping towards higher elevations because floristic diversity decreased on which butterflies rely for survival and propagation. A total of 2023 individuals of butterflies were recorded belonging to 40 species, represented by 27 genera and 05 families. Six survey sites (S I- S VI) were assessed for butterfly diversity from 2018 to 2020 in the Gulmarg region of Jammu & Kashmir. Across the survey, Nymphalidae was the most dominant family represented by 16 genera and 23 species, while Papilionidae and Hesperiidae were least dominant represented by 01 genera and 01 species each. Among the six collection sites selected, Site I was most dominant, represented by 16 genera and 21 species, while Site VI was least dominant, represented by 04 genera and 04 species.     

陕西延安市区蝶类多样性初探

延安市区有蝶类6科25属36种,其中凤蝶科2属3种;粉蝶科5属8种;眼蝶科3属5种;蛱蝶科7属10种;灰蝶科7属9种;弄蝶科1属1种。陕西省新记录5种。区系分析表明,该地区以广布种为优势种。     

Significance of a new field oviposition record for Graphium eurypylus (L.) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) on Michelia champaca (Magnoliaceae)

Abstract  Phytochemical similarities among ancient Angiosperms presumably played a role in the ecological and evolutionary diversification of the swallowtail butterflies (Papilionidae). Host family feeding specialisation is typical of most Papilionidae species, but field records of oviposition are rare for most swallowtail butterflies. It is even more uncommon to witness oviposition and larval feeding on new host plant species, especially in plant families not previously reported for the butterfly species. Oviposition by a female on a new host, or even on a toxic plant, may represent ancestral behaviour (with a loss of larval acceptance, detoxification or processing abilities) or novel behaviour (providing genetic variation for a potential expansion of host range, or host shift). We document the oviposition, larval use and pupation of the Annonaceae specialised and geographically widespread Graphium eurypylus on a Magnoliaceae species, all under field conditions in Queensland, Australia. This is the first time such field observations of oviposition and larval feeding on Michelia champaca (Magnoliaceae) have been documented anywhere for this species.     

四川省蝶类物种组成及名录

通过整理鉴定四川大学自然博物馆馆藏的100多年间采自四川省的1万余号蝶类标本,最早的四川蝶类标本(宽带凤蝶西部亚种Papilio nephelus chaon)采于1910年,结合文献和专著资料,参考《中国蝶类志》的分类系统,得到四川省蝶类644种,隶属于12科240属。其中,蛱蝶科Nymphalidae 162种、弄蝶科Hesperiidae 125种、眼蝶科Satyridae 114种、灰蝶科Lycaenidae 100种、粉蝶科Pieridae 59种、凤蝶科Papilionidae 45种、蚬蝶科Riodinidae 14种、绢蝶科Parnassiidae 11种、斑蝶科Danaidae 8种、环蝶科Amathusiidae 4种、喙蝶科Libytheidae 1种、珍蝶科Acraeidae 1种。四川省蝶类物种组成丰富,其中,蛱蝶科、弄蝶科、眼蝶科和灰蝶科物种数均超过或达到100种。建议在全省范围内选择不同生境建立长期监测点,持续监测蝶类物种多样性分布及变化情况,这对于保护全省生态环境和维持生物多样性都是至关重要的。建议尽快开展相关研究,包括四川省蝶类的经典分类学、系统发育及区系、生物地理学、生态学、行为学和进化生态学等研究。     

西双版纳片断热带雨林蝶类群落结构与多样性研究

对西双版纳片断热带雨林蝴蝶群落结构和多样性进行了研究。样地内共收集蝴蝶9 204号,隶属于10科,62属,84种。主要成分是：粉蝶科(粉蝶属、迁粉蝶属)、凤蝶科 (凤蝶属、麝凤蝶属)、蛱蝶科(斐豹蛱蝶属、尾蛱蝶属),眼蝶科(幕眼蝶属、矍眼蝶屑)等属的种类。属、种以风蝶科最丰富;个体数量以粉蝶科最多;喙蝶科的属、种和个体数量最少。各样地的多样性指数、均匀度和种类丰富度是：热带原始雨林自然保护区>城子片断热带雨林>植物园片断热带雨林>曼峨片断热带雨林。     

雨雪冰冻灾害对南岭蝴蝶资源的影响

南岭国家级自然保护区巳发现蝴蝶442种,其中不乏有中国分布新纪录和新种。常绿阔叶林中有蝴蝶339种,山地常绿针阔叶林中有蝴蝶369种,山顶常绿阔叶苔藓矮林中有蝴蝶71种;这些蝶类属东洋区的有360种,占总数的81.45%;属古北区的有48种,占总数的10.86%;跨区系分布的有34种,占总数的7.69%;南岭蝶类与福建省蝶类相似百分率高达77.27%,说明两地有共同的起源与演化过程。2008年初的雨雪冰冻灾害使南岭海拨500～1000m森林生态遭受严重破坏,各种蝴蝶在林中的种群密度骤降,海拨700～800m的蝶类仅为海拨1100～1200m冻害较轻林地蝶类数量的23%;整个林区蝶类的种群密度极低,与常年相比,降低率约为90%。凤蝶科的种群在调查地段发现的只占常年见到的37.5%。     

云南省蝴蝶新纪录种及订正种Ⅰ

报道云南蝴蝶新纪录7种1型及订正种1种的简要形态特征、已知分布区和采集信息.其中新纪录包括凤蝶科1种1型,粉蝶科1种,眼蝶科2种,蛱蝶科1种,灰蝶科2种,订正种为灰蝶科1种.     

Ithomiini Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) of Antioquia, Colombia

Colombia is one of the most biodiverse countries on the planet. However, economic and scientific investment in completing inventories of its biodiversity has been relatively poor in comparison with other Neotropical countries. Butterflies are the best studied group of invertebrates, with the highest proportion of known to expected species. More than 3,200 species of butterflies have been recorded in Colombia, although the study of the still many unexplored areas will presumably increase this number. This work provides a list of Ithomiini butterflies collected in the department of Antioquia and estimates the total number of species present, based on revision of entomological collections, records in the literature and field work performed between 2003 and 2011. The list includes 99 species and 32 genera, representing 27% of all Ithomiini species. We report 50 species of Ithomiini not formerly listed from Antioquia, and found the highest diversity of ithomiine species to be at middle elevations (900–1,800 m). The mean value of the Chao2 estimator for number of species in Antioquia is 115 species, which is close to a predicted total of 109 based on known distributions of other Ithomiini not yet recorded from the department. Nine species are potentially of particular conservation importance because of their restricted distributions, and we present range maps for each species. We also highlight areas in Antioquia with a lack of biodiversity knowledge to be targeted in future studies. This paper contributes to mapping the distribution of the Lepidoptera of Antioquia department in particular and of Colombia in general.     

Palatablility and escaping ability in Neotropical butterflies: tests with wild kingbirds (Tyrannus melancholicus, Tyrannidae)

The palatability and the ability of neotropical butterflies to escape after being detected, attacked and captured by wild kingbirds ( Tyrannus melancholicus Vieillot), was investigated by the release of 668 individuals of 98 butterfly species close to the birds, during their usual feeding activities. Most of the butterflies were attacked and eaten. Only the troidine swallowtails ( Parities and Battus ; Papilionidae) were consistently rejected on taste and elicited aversive behaviours in birds. Most other aposematic and/or mimetic species in the gehera Danaus and Lycorea (Danainae), Dione, Eueides and Heliconius (Heliconiinae), Hypothyris, Mechanitis and Melinaea (Ithomfinae), Biblis, Callicore and Diaethria (Limenitidinae) were generally eaten. Cryptic and non-mimetic species were always attacked and, if captured, they were also eaten. All Apaturinae, Charaxinae, Nymphalinae, Hesperidae, most Limenitidinae, Heliconiinag ( Agraulis, Dryas, Dryadula and Philaethria ) and Papilionidae ( Eurytides, Heraclides and Protesilaus ) were in this group. Results indicate that the learning process in kingbirds may demand a large mortality in prey populations, even among species generally accepted as unpalatable and aposematic. They also support the assertion that escaping ability and unpalatability evolved in butterflies as alternative strategies to avoid predation by birds. Mimetic relationships among several species are discussed. Evidence for the evolution of aposematism not related to unpalatability, but to escaping ability, was found for two hard-to-catch Morpho species.     

Beak marks on the wings of butterflies and predation pressure in the field

Beak marks on butterfly wings have been used as an indicator of predation pressure. The relationship between butterflies and their predators in the field was examined to evaluate the beak mark rate as an indicator of predation pressure. Transect censuses were conducted to measure the beak mark rate on butterflies from May to November, 2010, in Shiga Prefecture, Japan. A total of 1216 butterflies of 42 species from five families were observed during the study period. The beak mark rate in the Papilionidae was significantly higher than those of all other families. Analysis of the monthly fluctuations in the beak mark rate and relative abundance of predators revealed that the higher beak mark rates observed for two butterfly families (Papilionidae and Nymphalidae) were significantly and positively related to predation pressure, while no significant relationship was found for other families (Lycaenidae, Pieridae and Hesperiidae). Beak marks in larger butterflies (Papilionidae and Nymphalidae) can be used as an indicator to evaluate the relative intensity of predation pressure in the field.     

When species accumulation curves intersect: implications for ranking diversity using small samples

Diversity in biological communities frequently is compared using species accumulation curves, plotting observed species richness versus sample size. When species accumulation curves intersect, the ranking of communities by observed species richness depends on sample size, creating inconsistency in comparisons of diversity. We show that species accumulation curves for two communities are expected to intersect when the community with lower actual species richness has higher Simpson diversity (probability that two random individuals belong to different species). This may often occur when comparing communities that differ in habitat heterogeneity or disturbance, as we illustrate using data from neotropical butterflies. In contrast to observed species richness, estimated Simpson diversity always produces a consistent expected ranking among communities across sample sizes, with the statistical accuracy to confidently rank communities using small samples. Simpson diversity should therefore be particularly useful in rapid assessments to prioritize areas for conservation.     

Protected areas and prime hoverfly areas: Safe haven for hoverflies or not?

The efficiency of protected areas (PAs) has often been questioned due to global decline of biodiversity. Invertebrates, especially insects, have been historically underrepresented in conservation studies. Our study focuses on hoverflies, an important group of insect pollinators and proven to be good bioindicators. Research was focused in Serbia, one of Europe's hotspots of hoverfly diversity, with a long tradition of hoverfly research, which provided sufficient information for achieving our aims: identifying areas of high hoverfly diversity, evaluating the efficiency of PAs and prime hoverfly areas (PHAs) in the conservation of hoverflies, determining how well they cover the distribution of hoverfly species, especially those of conservation concern, and testing the importance of the size of the area for conservation of hoverfly diversity. We applied weighting of the species to help stress the importance of species of conservation concern. The results indicated that PHAs cover the areas with high hoverfly diversity better than PA networks, especially when it comes to species of conservation concern. Generalized linear model results showed that the area size was a significant predictor of number of species in both PA and PHA. This indicates that area size is key when designating new areas important for conservation, but there are also other factors that need to be taken into account, such as habitat quality or suitability. Studies like this are useful in aiding designation of new areas important for conservation of certain species and in identifying sampling gaps, which could potentially aim future research in that direction.