Plant reproductive biology of herbaceous monocots in a Venezuelan tropical cloud forest

The reproductive biology of 29 herbaceous understory monocot species was studied in a tropical cloud forest of northern coastal Venezuela (Henri Pittier National Park). Of the 23 plant species, 6 (26.1%) were self-incompatible and 17 (73.9%) self-compatible, the latter consisting of 12 (52.2%) fully self-compatible and 5 (21.7%) partially self-compatible species. An analysis of sexual systems and temporal variation of sex expression showed that of 29 monocot species, 14 (48.3%) were hermaphrodite and adichogamous, 14 (48.3%) monoecious and dichogamous, and one (3.4%) dioecious. The combination of monoecy and dichogamy prevented autogamy in 11 (91.7%) of the 12 self-compatible and monoecious species; one (8.3%) was autogamous. Of all species, 24 (82.8%) were obligate outbreeders, 2 (6.9%) spontaneously autogamous, and 3 (10.3%) partially autogamous. Ovule and flower abortion were not significantly different between the different groups. Pollen-ovule ratio was significantly different between monoecious and hermaphrodite species. The number of pollen grains and ovules per flower and the pollen-ovule ratio were variable among various pollination types. The average pollen-ovule ratio was higher in beetle-, dipteran-, and wind-pollinated species than in bee-, bird-, and bat-pollinated species. The first three pollination types were restricted to monoecious species, and the second three groups were restricted to hermaphrodite species. Of 33 plant species investigated, 12 (36.4%) displayed vegetative reproduction. The reproductive features of the understory monocot species are discussed in the context of life form, devices of cross-pollination, and geological history of the tropical cloud forest.     

Breeding systems in a temperate mediterranean-type climate montane sclerophyllous forest in central Chile

The frequency of dioecy in the predominantly biotically-pollinated native flora of a temperate montane sclerophyllous forest in central Chile, 33^oS, is determined. Experimental crosses and other tests were performed on a taxonomically diverse set of annual herbs, perennial herbs and woody species to detect genetic self-incompatibility, spontaneous selfing capacity and obligate agamospermy.
The overall frequency of dioecy in the community is 9%.Dioecy is unequally represented among life-forms, increasing in frequency with greater longevity: 0% in annual herbs; 2% in perennial herbs; 17% in shrubs; 57% in trees. Thirty-eight percent of 37 hermaphrodite species proved to be genetically self-incompatible. Self-incompatibility, like dioecy, increases in frequency with longevity: 0% in annual herbs; 50% in perennial herbs; 80% in shrubs. The self-compatible species showed a wide range of breeding habits from facultative outcrossing to strong autogamy. However, in most self-compatible species hand self-pollination increased fruit and seed set over spontaneous selfing. Obligate agamospermy was not detected among hermaphrodite specieS. Absolute and relative fecundity were strongly correlated with the degree of compatibility. However, reduced fecundity in obligate outbreeding species could not be unequivocally attributed to pollinator limitation.
For equivalent life-forms, the montane sclerophyllous forest exhibits proportionately more obligate outbreeding species than some tropical forests and other temperate communities. The strong tendency for obligate outcrossing in the Chilean community is seen as a result of interplay between life-history constraints and the intense abiotic and biotic pressures that are characteristic of the mediterranean-type climate community.     

Breeding systems of the Paraguaná coastal plain plants, Venezuela.

Breeding systems were evaluated for 51 plant species according to life form, pollination system, vegetation type, and phenology, in the coastal plain of Paraguaná Peninsula, Venezuela. Sexual systems were no associated to life form, pollination system, vegetation type, and phenology. The frequency distribution of sexual system was 82.3% hermaphroditism, 15.6% monoecy, and 1.9% dioecy. All sexual systems had a peak during the lowest rainfall. Genetic system distribution was 64.8% self-compatibility (including partially self-compatibility) and 35.2% self-incompatibility. Among self-compatible species, 45.1% were autogamous (19.6% not autogamous). The genetic systems were associated significantly to: (1) plant life form: self-compatible species tend to be herbaceous and self-incompatible plants tend to be woody species; (2) vegetation type: self-compatible species were predominant in the three vegetation types, but in the mangrove the frequency of self-compatible and self-incompatibles was similar; and (3) pollination system: most of the self-compatible species were polyphilous. Mating systems: xenogamous and autogamous species were associated only with plant life forms. Xenogamous plants were mostly woody species and autogamous plants were mostly herbaceous species. The high incidence of hermaphroditism, self-compatibility, and autogamy are related to herbaceous life form, polyphilous pollination system, and climatic conditions, together the insularity of the Paraguaná peninsula.     

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF A TROPICAL PALM SWAMP COMMUNITY IN THE VENEZUELAN LLANOS

The reproductive biology of a tropical palm swamp community, called morichal in the Venezuelan Central Llanos, was studied. Of the 128 woody and herbaceous species of plants recorded, 99 (77.34%) were hermaphrodites, 25 (19.53%) were monoecious, and four (3.13%) were dioecious. The morichal is characterized by a low number of species with obligate cross-fertilization. The frequencies of species with different breeding systems in a subsample of 26 species showed that eight (30.77%) were self-incompatible, 14 (53.85%) were self-compatible, and four (15.38%) were agamospermous. Ten of 14 self-compatible species were autogamous. Regardless of the self-incompatibility level estimated, seed and fruit set were greater in self-fertilized flowers than in hand-pollinated flowers in three of the nine self-incompatible species. These results are related to the facts that: 1) the relative isolation of the plant population limits the gene flow among similar communities and enforces the intrapopulation pollen flow; 2) the overlapping flowering patterns and infrequent and unspecialized pollinators may be enforcing self-compatibility and agamospermy; 3) self-compatibility is the rule among short-lived species in the morichal; and 4) three out of four agamospermous species are of the Melastomataceae family.     

RESPONSE TO SELECTION ON AUTOGAMY IN PHLOX

Two cycles of artificial selection were performed to increase autogamous fruiting in two wild populations of the self-incompatible Phlox drummondii, to decrease autogamous fruiting in two wild populations of the self-compatible Phlox cuspidata, and to both increase and decrease autogamous fruiting in a cultivar of P. drummondii which is pseudo-self-compatible. The breeding systems were determined to be genetically quite flexible, independent of inbreeding depression and other genetic phenomena which could hinder a breeding system shift. This is especially true for increasing autogamy. Self-pollen-pistil compatibility seems to be the single character affected by selection. Based on the continuous variation in both autogamy and self-compatibility, we suggest that the change has been due to genes which modify the self-incompatibility reaction rather than to the simple segregation of alleles at the S-locus.     

Reproductive Ecology of Understory Species in a Tropical Montane Forest in Costa Rica1

The reproductive ecology of nine hermaphroditic understory species in a tropical montane Quercus forest was studied at two sites (2300 and 2600 m elev.) in the Cordillera de Talamanca, Costa Rica. Flower life span, studied in six species, averaged 4.4 d. This is longer than flower life spans found in the Monteverde cloud forest (2.7 d) and comparable to flower life spans found for arctic and alpine species. We studied the breeding system in five species and found no self-incompatible species. Four species proved self-compatible, and three of these showed autogamy. The main diurnal insect pollinator was the bumblebee Bombus ephippiatus. Natural fruit set was low (8-32%) in six species with few seeds per fruit, while two many-seeded species showed a high rate of fruit set (90 and 96%). The incidence of pre–dispersal seed predation was high; the percentage of seeds infested in four species ranged from 8 to 56 percent.     

Patterns of biomass allocation to male and female functions in plants with different mating systems

Summary Using dry weight biomass we examined the patterns of investment in male and female functions (prezygotic cost) in plants with different mating systems. All the flower parts of both xenogamous and facultatively xenogamous species were heavier, i.e., larger, than those of facultatively autogamous species. Likewise, the dry weights of all the flower parts of xenogamous species exceeded those of facultatively xenogamous species. On a relative basis, xenogamous species invested less in calyces and more in corollas compared to species with the other mating systems. Facultatively autogamous species invested relatively more in pistils. Xenogamous species invested relatively more in stamens than do facultatively autogamous species. The ratios of dry weight stamens to dry weight pistils were equivalent in xenogamous and facultatively xenogamous species.The available data from xenogamous species suggest a pattern of resource allocation that is independent of sexual system (perfect-flowered, monoecious, or dioecious) and pollen vector. The cost of mating (prezygotic cost) was male biased and frequently exceeded by parental investment (postzygotic cost). These results are not consistent with models that predict equal allocation of resources to male and female sexual function but are consistent with those that predict unequal allocation of resources to those functions in outbreeding hermaphroditic angiosperms. Two additional lines of evidence are inconsistent with the expectations of sex allocation theory. First, resource allocation to sexual function was not equal in wind-pollinated species. Second, relative amounts of the resources allocated to male vis-à-vis female function did not decrease between xenogamy and facultative xenogamy i.e., with an increase in the selfing rate.     

Mating system of Helianthemum squamatum (Cistaceae), a gypsophile specialist of semi-arid Mediterranean environments

Aragán C. F. and Escudero A. 2008. Mating system of Helianthemum squamatum (Cistaceae), a gypsophile specialist of semi-arid Mediterranean environments. Bot. Helv. 118: 129–137 Plants living on gypsum have received remarkably little study, despite being one of the most important groups of endemic and rare plants in arid and semi-arid regions. This work is among the first to study the mating system of a gypsophyte, Helianthemum squamatum (Cistaceae), which is a short-lived perennial endemic to gypsum habitats of the Iberian Peninsula. We carried out a hand-pollination experiment, considering the following pollination treatments: autogamy, geitonogamy, xenogamy and control (open-pollination). Generalized linear mixed models were fitted to evaluate the effect of the treatment on the fruit set and the number of viable seeds yielded per fruit. Both response variables were significantly higher in the xenogamy treatment than in the autogamy and geitonogamy treatments. No significant differences were detected between the xenogamy treatment and the control group, indicating that H. squamatum is mainly an outcrosser although partially self-compatible. Our results also suggest that pollen limitation may only slightly affect the reproductive success of H. squamatum. In contrast with the general tendency towards self-compatibility previously described in short-lived species of the Cistaceae, this outcrossing mating system resembles the one of long-lived perennials Submitted 10 April 2008; Accepted 25 August 2008 Subject editor: Christian Parisod     

REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF TROPICAL LOWLAND RAIN FOREST TREES. I. SEXUAL SYSTEMS AND INCOMPATIBILITY MECHANISMS

Sexual systems of tropical lowland rain forest trees were investigated to estimate the relative proportions of hermaphroditic, monoecious, and dioecious species. Controlled hand pollinations were performed on hermaphroditic species to determine the proportions of self-compatible and self-incompatible species. A total of 333 species was examined; 65.5% species were found to be hermaphroditic, 11.4% monoecious, and 23.1% dioecious. There were no differences between canopy and subcanopy habitats in the distribution of various sexual systems. Out of the 28 species subjected to controlled pollinations, 24 showed the presence of self-incompatibility. The site of the incompatibility barrier in distylous species was either in the stigma or in the style. In most of the monomorphic species, the incompatibility barrier was in the ovary. Although a majority of tree species in the rain forest appear to be obligate outcrossers (xenogamons), the potential for inbreeding due to small effective population size still remains to be explored.     

BREEDING SYSTEMS OF CENTRAL AMERICAN APHELANDRA (ACANTHACEAE)

Controlled pollinations, followed by germination studies of seeds resulting from self- and cross-pollination, were carried out using plants from 12 populations of nine species of Aphelandra (Acanthaceae), a genus of neotropical shrubs and herbs. These results are combined with data from field studies of flower morphology, phenology, and pollinator relationships to estimate breeding system of each species. All species have floral morphological traits that prevent autogamy. Plants from five populations of five species experience low levels of geitonogamous pollen transfer; they produce few flowers daily and are pollinated by traplining hummingbirds. Excepting A. storkii, these plants are fully self-compatible (SC), and seeds from selfing are as viable as crossed seeds. Aphelandra storkii is partially self-incompatible (SI) and produces seeds from selfing that tend to germinate less successfully than crossed seeds. Plants from the remaining populations are profusely flowering shrubs, and even those pollinated by traplining hummingbirds should experience higher levels of geitonogamy. Aphelandra deppeana is pollinated by territorial hummingbirds, which should further increase the incidence of geitonogamy. All shrub species are partially SI, and two species (A. leonardii and A. sinclairiana) show significant reduced germination of selfed vs. crossed seeds. The breeding system of these species is thus modified by postpollination factors that favor the formation and maturation of outcrossed seeds. It is suggested that Aphelandra species, like other herbs and shrubs of tropical forest understory, possess a combination of breeding system traits that promote outcrossing but do not exclude geitonogamy.     

同域分布的紫堇属三种植物的繁育系统和传粉差异

为研究近缘物种之间繁育系统分化对传粉环境的适应性意义,本文针对湖北地区的3种紫堇属植物（紫堇Corydalis edulis Maxim.、尖距紫堇C.shearer S.Moore.和小花黄堇C.racemosa（Thunb.） Pers.）进行了传粉生态学研究,对比分析了它们在花部特征、分布模式、花期、交配系统、传粉系统等方面的差异。3种紫堇属植物常见伴生现象,花期有一定重叠;花色、距长、花蜜量等方面均有显著差异;尖距紫堇交配系统为自交不亲和、依靠传粉者异花授粉;而紫堇和小花黄堇交配系统为自交亲和,兼有自交和异交的混合交配系统。3个物种均由蜂类传粉,且花部性器官与传粉者的接触部位一致,但访花频率差异较大。在混合群落中,传粉者访花具有较高的忠实性,花部特征差异可能是传粉者选择性访花的原因。对于紫堇属3个物种,花部特征和交配系统的分化有助于其避免传粉过程的相互干扰,交配系统与传粉环境具有一定相关性,混合交配系统可能有利于提高植物对不同生境和气候的适应性。     

Breeding systems of Australian Ranunculus in the alpine region

The breeding systems of five species of Ranunculus that co-occur in the Australian alpine region were investigated in the field and glasshouse. Ranunculus muelleri, R.dissectifolius, R.graniticola, R.millanii and R.niphophilus are all facultatively xenogamous. Flowers appear to promote outcrossing by incomplete protogyny (flowers are female for 1–3 days, then bisexual for 3–10 days). Hand pollinations on plants in the field demonstrate that R.muelleri, R.graniticola, R.niphophilus and R.millanii are fully self-compatible, while R.dissectifolius is only partly self-compatible. However, low index of self-incompatibility values for R.graniticola indicate that this species may also be only partly self-compatible. Moderate levels of seed set from bagged flowers indicate that autogamous seed set due to automatic and/or possible thrips mediated intrafloral pollination may be common in all five species. Polled ovule ratios ranged from 992 to 3045 for these species of Ranunculus which are consistent with facultative xenogamy. The breeding systems of the Australian Ranunculus species in the alpine region are compared to that of other Ranunculus and examined in relation to the alpine environment.     

Breeding system and fruit set in African Marantaceae

Marantaceae are a pantropically distributed family of perennial herbs and lianas in the understory of tropical rainforests. They are characterized by a unique pollen transfer mechanism. To understand its functional significance and evolution, field investigations have been conducted in Gabon.Data from 28 (of 35) species from Central Africa are achieved. The pollen–ovule ratio (34–140:1; exception Sarcophrynium 2.5:1) falls into the range of facultative autogamous species. All investigated species were proven to be self-compatible; however, only two were autogamous. Natural fruit set was generally low (10.9 ± 10%). The highest natural fruit set was found in Marantochloa purpurea (29.7%), Ma. grandiflora (33.5%) and the two autogamous species Halopegia azurea (31%) and Marantochloa leucantha (35%). Considerable higher fruit set could be reached in all species by hand-self-pollination.We conclude that autogamy is generally avoided through herkogamy based on secondary pollen presentation on the back of the style head – a central component of the specific pollen transfer mechanism. However, with respect to the consecutive visit of pollinators to several flowers of the same individual geitonogamy cannot be excluded. The aggregated pollen transfer via the explosive pollination mechanism might be interpreted as an adaptation to low pollinator visitation rate, pollen limitation might explain the low fruit set.     

What makes a weed a weed: life history traits of native and exotic plants in the USA

I compared ten life history traits (vegetative reproduction, breeding system, compatibility, pollination system, shade tolerance, habitat, life span, life form, morphology, and toxicity) from two existing databases for the 19,960 plant species that occur in the USA. I used two-way tests of independence to determine if there were significant life history traits that distinguish weeds from non-weeds, exotic weeds from native weeds, and invasive exotic weeds from non-invasive exotic weeds. Life span was the most significant life history trait for weeds in general; weeds were more likely to be annuals and biennials and less likely to perennials than non-weeds. In addition, vegetative reproduction, breeding system, compatibility, shade tolerance, and life form were related to life span. Annual and biennial weeds (whether native, exotic, or exotic invasives) were more likely to be wetland adapted, armed, and toxic than annual or biennial non-weeds. Perennial weeds (whether native, exotic, or exotic invasives) were less likely to be forbs or subshrubs, and more likely to be wetland adapted, toxic, shade intolerant, grasses, vines and trees than perennial non-weeds. Exotic annual and perennial weeds were less likely to be wetland species than native weeds, but more likely to be wetland species than non-weeds. Invasive exotic weeds, in contrast, were less likely to be forbs and more likely to be perennial, monoecious, self-incompatible, and trees and than non-invasive exotics.     

The breeding system of Fumana ericifolia: first evidence of autogamy in woody Cistaceae

Fumana ericifolia belongs to the family Cistaceae, in which all perennial species previously studied have been reported to be self-incompatible and xenogamous. Here we show that F. ericifolia is self-compatible and autogamous. Its flowers last only four to eight hours and produce a small amount of pollen and ovules. Self-pollination depends on changes in the relative position of the stigma and the anthers, triggered by the abscission of the petals; this in turn causes closing of the sepals, which push the anthers onto the stigma. Pollen remains highly viable and germinable, and the stigma keeps its receptivity several hours after the loss of the petals. Hand pollination treatments revealed that fruits are produced both in selfed and crossed flowers. The germination of pollen grains on the stigma, the rate of pollen tube growth along the style, and the penetration into the ovules were similar in self-and cross-pollinations; also, there were no significant differences in fruit set, seed set and weight of seeds. Thus, we report the first evidence of autogamy in a woody Cistaceae and suggest that selfing may ensure reproductive success when pollinators are limited.     

Plant sexual systems, dichogamy, and herkogamy in the Venezuelan Central Plain

Sexual system, temporal variation in sex expression, and herkogamy were evaluated in 210 plant species in the Venezuelan Central Plain (VCP). This analysis was conducted considering the life forms, habitats, flowering time, pollination systems, and dispersal syndromes of the plant species. Hermaphrodite species dominated the community (75.2%; N=158), followed by monoecious taxa (17.1%; N=36), and then dioecious (7.6; N=16). Most species were adichogamous (=homogamous) (75.2%; N=155), followed by protandrous (16.5%; N=34), and protogynous (8.3%; N=17). The frequency of herkogamous species was higher (N=124; 60.2%) than the non-herkogamous (N=82; 39.8%). The three reproductive traits interacted significantly in a way that complements their effectiveness in promoting cross-pollination and avoidance of pollen–stigma interference: hermaphrodite-adichogamous species occurred in similar frequency to herkogamous and non-herkogamous species; monoecious-adichogamous species were mostly herkogamous, and all hermaphrodite, functionally dioecious-adichogamous, species were herkogamous. Sexual system, herkogamy, and dichogamy are associated with habitats in the savanna-forest mosaic of the VCP. The proportion of dioecious species decreased from trees to annual herbs and from forest to disturbed areas. Dichogamous species were most frequent for herbaceous plants, and non-herkogamous species dominated in annual herbs. The frequency of herkogamous species decreased from forest to disturbed areas. Sexual system was significantly associated with pollination system. Most dioecious and monoecious species had generalist pollination. A three-factor log linear analysis indicated that for any combination significantly. Sexual systems and herkogamy were associated with the respective seed dispersal syndrome. Most dioecious and herkogamous species were dispersed by frugivores, while monoecious plants tended to be dispersed by granivores and wind. Flowering time of dioecious species peaked during the dry–rainy transition period, whereas that of monoecious species was greatest during the rainy season. Therefore, specific biotic and abiotic conditions may enforce the occurrence of unisexuality in the community. In a similar way, dichogamous species tend to flower during the rainy season, associated with herbaceous life form and wind pollination. These results are discussed in the context of evolutionary and ecological trends.     

Self-compatibility and plant invasiveness: Comparing species in native and invasive ranges

A longstanding hypothesis (“Baker's rule”) is that plant invasiveness is facilitated by floral self compatibility rather than self incompatibility. Extending this idea, invasive species whose individuals vary in degree of self compatibility within the native range might be self compatible in invading or weedy populations, due to natural selection on the mating system. We compared mating system between native and invasive ranges for two major world invasives, one annual (Echium plantagineum) and one perennial (Solanum elaeagnifolium). For an additional annual species (Centaurea solstitialis) we compared non-weedy and weedy populations in the native range. No species was strongly spontaneously self pollinating, but the degree of self compatibility after hand pollination varied dramatically. Both annuals were self incompatible in native or non-weedy populations but self compatible in invasive or weedy ones; the reverse was true for the perennial. Individuals within populations of all three species also varied in their degree of self compatibility, suggesting a basis for natural selection, and populations of the same species sharing a status (native/non-weedy, invading/weedy) varied in average self compatibility. These results support the hypothesis that differential selection of progeny during invasion can result in self-compatible populations derived from ancestrally self-incompatible ones, but that this process may be less important in perennial species, which experience multiple opportunities for sexual reproduction. Overall, however, mating system may not operate alone and its contributions to invasiveness may be conditional on other attributes of a species including physiology, morphology, and life history.     

POLLEN-OVULE RATIOS AND BREEDING SYSTEM EVOLUTION IN SOLANUM SECTION BASARTHRUM (SOLANACEAE)

Pollen-ovule ratio, pollen grains per flower, pollen grain volume, pollen biomass, ovules per ovary, seeds per fruit, seed volume, seed biomass, and corolla size were studied to reveal patterns of variation within a monophyletic group. Solanum sect. Basarthrum includes 22 neotropical species of two clades, one having small, few-seeded red fruits, and the other having larger, many-seeded green fruits. The former includes self-incompatible species and a dioecious species, while the latter includes self-incompatible species, self-compatible (and autogamous) species, and a domesticate (the “pepino”). Although the pollen quantity and ovule quantity of the self-incompatible species are significantly higher in the green-fruited subgroup than in the red-fruited subgroup, the pollen-ovule ratios of the self-incompatible species are not significantly different between the two subgroups, suggesting parallel evolution of the pollen-ovule ratio. Furthermore, the pollen-ovule ratio tracks the breeding system: self-incompatible species have significantly higher pollen-ovule ratios than self-compatible species, resulting both from fewer pollen grains and more ovules of the latter. The pollen-ovule ratio of the dioecious species is among the highest of all, resulting only from fewer ovules. The pepino is self-compatible but has a pollen-ovule ratio like its wild self-incompatible progenitors and shows wide variation in seed production and pollen quality, but not in pollen quantity. Among all species, pollen size and quantity are inversely proportional, as are seed size and quantity.     

Mating systems of three meadow plant species

Norderhaug, A. 1995. Mating systems of three meadow plant species — Nord. J. Bot. 15: 243–250. Copenhagen. ISSN 0107–055X.
The area of species-rich hay meadows in Norway has been drastically reduced during the 20th century. This continuing process results in fragmentation and isolation of remaining habitats. Small and isolated populations may have reduced gene flow. This is a crucial factor for the structure and cohesiveness of populations. Gene flow in plant species is regulated by pollen and seed dispersal, and pollen dispersal is controlled by the species' mating system. As part of a research project on habitat fragmentation three meadow species ( Dactylorhiza sambucina, Hypochoeris maculata, Polygala vulgaris ) with different life strategies were therefore selected for studies of their mating systems. A hand pollination experiment showed that both Dactylorhiza sambucina and Polygala vulgaris were self-compatible. Seed set in H. maculata was low and the species may be considered as pseudo-self-compatible or self-incompatible. Using Bawa's (1974) criteria, however, also Hypochoeris maculata should be considered as self-compatible. All three species enhanced outbreeding but P vulguris also proved to be a good selfer and autogamous.     

Breeding systems in Balsaminaceae in relation to pollen/ovule ratio,pollination syndromes,life history and climate zone

• Pollen/ovule (P/O) ratios are often used as proxy for breeding systems. Here, we investigate the relations between breeding systems and P/O ratios, pollination syndromes, life history and climate zone in Balsaminaceae.
• We conducted controlled breeding system experiments (autonomous and active self‐pollination and outcrossing tests) for 65 Balsaminaceae species, analysed pollen grain and ovule numbers and evaluated the results in combination with data on pollination syndrome, life history and climate zone on a phylogenetic basis.
• Based on fruit set, we assigned three breeding systems: autogamy, self‐compatibility and self‐incompatibility. Self‐pollination led to lower fruit set than outcrossing. We neither found significant P/O differences between breeding systems nor between pollination syndromes. However, the numbers of pollen grains and ovules per flower were significantly lower in autogamous species, but pollen grain and ovule numbers did not differ between most pollination syndromes. Finally, we found no relation between breeding system and climate zone, but a relation between climate zone and life history.
• In Balsaminaceae reproductive traits can change under resource or pollinator limitation, leading to the evolution of autogamy, but are evolutionary rather constant and not under strong selection pressure by pollinator guild and geographic range changes. Colonisation of temperate regions, however, is correlated with transitions towards annual life history. Pollen/ovule‐ratios, commonly accepted as good indicators of breeding system, have a low predictive value in Balsaminaceae. In the absence of experimental data on breeding system, additional floral traits (overall pollen grain and ovule number, traits of floral morphology) may be used as proxies.