Immunocytochemical identification of cell types in human mammary gland: variations in cellular markers are dependent on glandular topography and differentiation

Antiserum to epithelial membrane antigen and three monoclonal antibodies (MAb) to milk-fat globule membranes immunocytochemically stain only epithelial cells, whereas a fourth reacts also with myoepithelial cells in inter- and intralobular ducts of human breast. Staining with peanut lectin shows a gradual increase for epithelial cells, from little or no staining in ducts through variable staining in ductules to intense staining in secretory alveoli. Antisera and MAb to vimentin, smooth-muscle actin, MAb to the common acute lymphoblastic leukemia antigen and to a glycoprotein of 135 KD stain myoepithelial cells in main ducts, but this staining is reduced in inter- and intralobular ducts and ductules. MAb to epithelial-specific keratin 18 stain a minor population of ductal epithelial cells, the major population of epithelial cells in interlobular (ILD) and extralobular terminal ducts (ETD), and epithelial cells in a minority of ductules. In lactating glands most epithelial cells in ductules are stained, but the alveolar and myoepithelial cells are unstained. Keratin MAb PKK2 and LP34 strongly stain myoepithelial cells, but only a minor population of epithelial cells in main ducts. However, these MAb stain principally the epithelial cells in ILD, ETD, and a minority of ductules. In lactating glands most epithelial cells are stained in ductules, but the myoepithelial and not the alveolar cells are stained intensely in secretory lobules. It is suggested that the unusual staining pattern of cells found principally in the ILD, ETD, and some ductules may represent regions of growth and/or subpopulation(s) of cells intermediate between epithelial and myoepithelial cells.     

In vitro analysis of proliferating epithelial cell populations from the mouse mammary gland: Fibroblast-free growth and serial passage

Summary Normal and neoplastic mouse mammary epithelial cells were cultured in nutrient medium containing D-valine substituted for L-valine. Fibroblast overgrowth was prevented and epithelial cell functions and morphology were retained in cultures maintained in, D-valine medium up to 2 months. A nonenzymatic technique was devised to dissociate epithelial cell monolayers. The combined use of this dissociation buffer and D-valine nutrient medium made it possible to passage serially normal and neoplastic mammary epithelial cells. Normal cells were derived from mammary glands of animals stimulated with exogenous hormones for various periods. The period of in vivo hormonal stimulation influenced the ability of normal mammary epithelial cells to attach and proliferate in primary and serially passaged cultures. A greater proportion of cells derived from glands following 2 to 4 weeks of hormonal stimulation were recovered after replating and showed higher labeling indices during serial passage than cells from unstimulated or 5- to 7-week stimulated groups. This investigation was supported by Grant No. CA 05388 from the National Cancer Institute and by Cancer Research Funds of the University of California.     

Aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase in mouse mammary gland: In vitro study using mammary cell lines

The effects of 3-methylcholanthrene (MCA), 5,6-benzoflavone (βNF), 7,8-benzoflavone (αNF) and pregnenolone 16α-carbonitrile (PCN) upon aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) were determined in primary mammary gland epithelial cell cultures prepared from the C3Hf^?/Ki mouse. MCA elevated AHH activity by 3–4 fold after 24 h of treatment; αNF produced a 50% inhibition. The specific activity of AHH in these cells was elevated by 6 h after exposure to MCA; enzyme activity was still maximally elevated after 48 h. The effects of MCA were also investigated in a group of mammary cell lines, one of which was derived from a control virgin mouse, the MCG V14; 3 of which arose from mammary tumors, MCG T10, MCG T14 and MCG T19; and 2 of which were sublines developed from hyperplastic alveolar nodules, HAN-1 and HAN-2. Induction was seen in all lines at 24 h, with the MCG T14 being the most responsive and the HAN-2, the least. Although the MCG T19 tumor cells did respond in culture, when implanted in the mouse, the AHH of the subsequent tumor was not elevated upon administration of MCA in vivo.     

Immunocytochemical localization of prolactin binding sites in mouse adrenal gland

1. Prolactin (PRL) has been previously associated with adrenal secretion of either corticosterone, progesterone, or aldosterone. 2. PRL binding sites have been previously demonstrated in rat adrenal cellular membrane preparations. 3. No studies have reported specific zonal sites of PRL binding. 4. The current study demonstrates presence of both endogenously bound PRL and free receptor for PRL in zona fasciculata of mouse adrenal cortex. 5. This finding is consistent with a role for PRL in regulating adrenal secretion of either corticosterone or progesterone in the mouse.     

Long-term organ culture of mouse mammary gland

Summary A method for maintaining mouse mammary gland in organ culture for periods of at least 30 days is described. Strips of the number four mammary glands were cultured in individual tubes while fully submerged in Medium 199 supplemented with insulin, aldosterone, ovine prolactin and bovine growth hormone. Exchange processes were aided by slowly rotating the tubes during culture. Mammary tissue from midpregnant BALB/c and virgin GR/A mice was induced to undergo lobulo-alveolar development, secrete and remain differentiated and metabolically active for the period of culture. Cells of both the ductal and alveolar epithelium continued to synthesize DNA and divide. The submerged roller-tube culture allows the use of larger pieces of tissue than can be accommodated in static culture, and the technique may prove applicable to the culture of a variety of tissues.     

Sequences within the gag gene of mouse mammary tumor virus needed for mammary gland cell transformation

Previously, we identified a group of replication-competent exogenous mouse mammary tumor viruses that failed to induce mammary tumors in susceptible mice. Sequence comparison of tumorigenic and tumor-attenuated virus variants has linked the ability of virus to cause high-frequency mammary tumors to the gag gene. To determine the specific sequences within the gag gene that contribute to tumor induction, we constructed five distinct chimeric viruses that have various amino acid coding sequences of gag derived from a tumor-attenuated virus replaced by those of highly tumorigenic virus and tested these viruses for tumorigenic capacities in virus-susceptible C3H/HeN mice. Comparing the tumorigenic potentials of these viruses has allowed us to map the region responsible for tumorigenesis to a 253-amino-acid region within the CA and NC regions of the Gag protein. Unlike C3H/HeN mice, BALB/cJ mice develop tumors when infected with all viral variants, irrespective of the gag gene sequences. Using genetic crosses between BALB/cJ and C3H/HeN mice, we were able to determine that the mechanism that confers susceptibility to Gag-independent mammary tumors in BALB/cJ mice is inherited as a dominant trait and is controlled by a single gene, called mammary tumor susceptibility (mts), that maps to chromosome 14.     

Apoptotic cell death and tissue remodelling during mouse mammary gland involution.

During post-lactational mammary gland involution, the bulk of mammary epithelium dies and is reabsorbed. This massive cell death and tissue restructuring was found to be accompanied by a specific pattern of gene expression. Northern blot analysis showed that weaning resulted in a dramatic drop in ODC, a gene involved in synthesis of a component of milk, and the nearly simultaneous induction of SGP-2, a gene associated with apoptotic cell death. These changes were followed by decreases in expression of milk protein genes to basal levels and expression of genes associated with regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation, p53, c-myc and TGF-beta 1. Subsequently, additional genes implicated in stress response, tissue remodelling, and apoptotic cell death were transiently expressed, expression peaking at about 6 days post-weaning. A non-random degradation of DNA yielding the oligonucleosomal length fragmentation pattern typical of apoptotic cell death (Wyllie, 1980; Wyllie et al., 1980) was detected in association with morphological changes and gene expression. The correlations between: (a) changes in morphology, (b) pattern of gene expression and (c) changes in DNA integrity suggest that complementary programs for cell death and tissue remodelling direct post-lactational mammary gland involution.     

Immunocytochemical localization of epidermal growth factor in mouse submandibular gland.

The cellular and subcellular localization of epidermal growth factor in the submandibular glands of male and female adult mice was established by immunoperoxidase techniques. In light microscopic preparations epidermal growth factor was found exclusively in the granular convoluted tubules of the gland. The intensity of staining for epidermal growth factor varied from cell to cell, and some cells apparently were negative. The pattern of staining was similar in the glands of male and female mice; however, the granular convoluted tubules are androgen-responsive, and thus more extensive and composed of larger cells in males. In thin sections epidermal growth factor was most heavily concentrated in the secretion granules of the granular convoluted tubule cells. Within a given cell there was variation in intensity of staining of individual secretion granules, with some granules appearing minimally reactive or negative. The only other cell component with deposits of reaction product was the ribosomes.     

Secret excretion from the mouse mammary gland

Histological studies revealed that the mammary gland nipple have smooth muscle fibres along the nipple channel. These fibres infiltrate the connective tissue parallel to the skin. The ring muscles are not obvious. Delays in the milk excretion in mice may be due to specifics of allocation and functioning of the nipple smooth muscles. To obtain milk, a mechanical action upon the nipple and a synchronised release of oxitocin into the blood are necessary.     

Effect of leptin in proliferating and differentiated HC11 mouse mammary cells

Leptin and its receptors have been shown to be expressed in several tissues thus suggesting that this protein might be effective not only at the CNS level, but also peripherically. We demonstrated by RT-PCR analysis that leptin and its long isoform receptor are expressed in the mouse mammary epithelial cell line HC11, an in vitro cell model considered suitable to study the regulation of the functional development of the mammary epithelium. Furthermore, leptin secretion by HC11 cells was demonstrated by heterologous ELISA. Neither mRNA expression nor protein secretion changed throughout the different phases of differentiation of the cell line. Receptor mRNA was not modified when cells were induced to express beta-casein. High concentrations of leptin (between 1.5 and 15 microM) significantly (p<0.05) reduced cell growth as measured by MTT test. HC11 cells were transfected with pbetacCAT, a chimeric rat-beta casein gene promoter-CAT gene construct and CAT ELISA was used to determine gene expression. Leptin, from 1.5 nM to 15 microM, was shown to positively (p<0.05) influence beta-casein expression both in the presence or in the absence of prolactin. These data provide evidence that leptin, through its receptor, may be an important mediator in regulating mammary gland growth and development.     

Physiology of secretory cells in the mouse mammary gland

Secretory cells' membrane potential and transepithelial potential difference in the mouse mammary gland diminish within 2.5 hours following breast-feeding of the litter. The transepithelial resistance for up to 20 hours after the feeding did not drop below 40-70 k omega. The secret pressure in the mammary gland does not grow during this period. Therefore an increase of interval between litter feeding up to 20 hours does not entail any mechanical lesion of the secretory epithelium. The latter's cells seem to secrete organic and inorganic substances in concentrations which do not change significantly during their transfer along the outgoing ducts.     

Glucocorticoid and progesterone inhibit involution and programmed cell death in the mouse mammary gland

Milk production during lactation is a consequence of the suckling stimulus and the presence of glucocorticoids, prolactin, and insulin. After weaning the glucocorticoid hormone level drops, secretory mammary epithelial cells die by programmed cell death and the gland is prepared for a new pregnancy. We studied the role of steroid hormones and prolactin on the mammary gland structure, milk protein synthesis, and on programmed cell death. Slow-release plastic pellets containing individual hormones were implanted into a single mammary gland at lactation. At the same time the pups were removed and the consequences of the release of hormones were investigated histologically and biochemically. We found a local inhibition of involution in the vicinity of deoxycorticosterone- and progesterone-release pellets while prolactin-release pellets were ineffective. Dexamethasone, a very stable and potent glucocorticoid hormone analogue, inhibited involution and programmed cell death in all the mammary glands. It led to an accumulation of milk in the glands and was accompanied by an induction of protein kinase A, AP-1 DNA binding activity and elevated c-fos, junB, and junD mRNA levels. Several potential target genes of AP-1 such as stromelysin-1, c-jun, and SGP-2 that are induced during normal involution were strongly inhibited in dexamethasone-treated animals. Our results suggest that the cross-talk between steroid hormone receptors and AP-1 previously described in cells in culture leads to an impairment of AP-1 activity and to an inhibition of involution in the mammary gland implying that programmed cell death in the postlactational mammary gland depends on functional AP-1.     

Immunophenotypic properties and estrogen dependency of budding cell structures in the developing mouse mammary gland

Abstract. The initial phase of growth of the parenchymal component of the mouse mammary gland is ductal clongation, which is mainly accomplished by proliferating cells in a specialized structure termed end bud. End buds are composed of multiple layers of epithelial cells (so called body cells) which are capped by a single layer of morphologically unique cells termed cap cells.
We sought to examine the interrelationship between cap cells and other epithelial cell subclasses using a variety of antibodies to different keratin proteins and also antibodies to vimentin, actin and collagen IV. An extensive immunohistochemical characterization of the epithelial components of the developing and differentiating mammary gland demonstrated that cap cells were devoid of any immunohistochemically - detectable keratins but were positive for collagen IV. In contrast, the majority of cells in the end bud along with the luminal epithelial and myoepithelial cells were keratin positive. The body cells of the end bud were the only cells which were positive for antibody to keratin 6, a keratin which previously has been reported to be expressed in proliferating mammary epithelial cells. In addition, estrogen receptor was localized only to epithelial cells of ducts, alvcoli and body cells of end buds, but not to cap cells or myoepithelial cells. We interpret these results to suggest that cap cells are not totpotent stem cells but rather cells specialized in paving the way for ductal elongation as well as serving as precursors to myoepithelial cells.     

Immunocytochemical localization of renin in the submandibular gland of the mouse.

Renin was localized in the submandibular gland of the adult mouse at light and electron microscopic levels by the unlabeled antibody enzyme method of Sternberger. At the light microscopic level, renin was confined to the granular convoluted tubule (GCT) segment of the gland with considerable variation among GCT cells in intensity of staining. Some GCT cells failed to stain for renin. The pattern of staining was the same in the gland of male and female mice, but in the glands of females GCT segments were smaller and less numerous. At the electron microscopic level, staining for renin was also confined to the GCT cells, and was localized exclusively to the secretory granules. The intensity of staining of the secretory granules within a given GCT cell varied; some cells contained only minimally reactive or negative secretory granules. All other organelles within the GCT cell, except condensing vacuoles, failed to stain.     

Cold-inducible RNA binding protein in mouse mammary gland development

RNA binding proteins (RBPs) regulate gene expression by controlling mRNA export, translation, and stability. When altered, some RBPs allow cancer cells to grow, survive, and metastasize. Cold-inducible RNA binding protein (CIRP) is overexpressed in a subset of breast cancers, induces proliferation in breast cancer cell lines, and inhibits apoptosis. Although studies have begun to examine the role of CIRP in breast and other cancers, its role in normal breast development has not been assessed. We generated a transgenic mouse model overexpressing human CIRP in the mammary epithelium to ask if it plays a role in mammary gland development. Effects of CIRP overexpression on mammary gland morphology, cell proliferation, and apoptosis were studied from puberty through pregnancy, lactation and weaning. There were no gross effects on mammary gland morphology as shown by whole mounts. Immunohistochemistry for the proliferation marker Ki67 showed decreased proliferation during the lactational switch (the transition from pregnancy to lactation) in mammary glands from CIRP transgenic mice. Two markers of apoptosis showed that the transgene did not affect apoptosis during mammary gland involution. These results suggest a potential in vivo function in suppressing proliferation during a specific developmental transition.     

EGF receptor regulation in normal mouse mammary gland.

Estrogen (E), progesterone (P), and epidermal growth factor (EGF) are known to regulate growth and development of the normal mammary gland, and it is possible that EGF may interact with E and/or P. Estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), and EGF receptors (EGF-R) have been detected in both mammary epithelial and stromal cells, and the relative roles of the various cells types in hormone-dependent growth regulation are not known. The present studies were undertaken to determine if E and/or P influence EGF action by exerting a regulatory effect on EGF-R levels and which cell types are affected. The comparative effects of ovariectomy and hormone treatments on EGF-R levels were examined in immature, pubertal 5-week-old and sexually mature 10-week-old female mice. EGF-R were characterized as a single class of high affinity sites and EGF-R concentration was 2-fold higher in glands of 5-week-old mice. Ovariectomy had no significant effect on EGF-R concentration in either age group, and treatment with E and/or P had no effect on EGF-R levels in either epithelial or stromal cells in 5-week-old mice. In contrast, E+P treatment caused a 2-fold increase in receptor concentration in 10-week-old mice in the mammary epithelium. Thus it appears that the developmental state of the gland may determine the nature and extent of the interaction of of EGF, E, and P.     

Distribution and source of lipoprotein lipase in mouse mammary gland

During lactation lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is elevated in mammary tissue and depressed in adipose tissue to redirect lipids for incorporation into milk fat. The cellular origin of lipoprotein lipase in mammary tissue is thought to be the mammary epithelial cell which is the predominant cell type noticeable in the lactating gland; however, mammary adipocytes are also present. If lipoprotein lipase is produced by adipocytes in other sites of the body, then the question remains as to why mammary adipocytes have not been shown to produce lipoprotein lipase. In this study we present several lines of evidence that indicate that the mammary adipocyte is a source of LPL in the lactating mammary gland of mice. This evidence includes the absence of extracellular and intracellular lipoprotein lipase activity in two types of primary mammary epithelial cell cultures and a similarity in the changes of lipoprotein lipase activity in genital adipose tissue from nonpregnant mice and lactating mammary tissue to the nutritional state of the animal. Other evidence presented here includes strong localization of lipoprotein lipase protein and messenger RNA by fluorescence immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, respectively, to interstitial cells located between epithelial structures. We postulate that these interstitial cells are regressed, lipid-deleted mammary adipocytes.     

Heterogeneity of transport systems for L-glutamine in mouse mammary gland

The characteristics of the transport systems of L-glutamine in lactating mouse mammary gland have been studied. L-glutamine uptake was mediated by three Na+-dependent and one Na+-independent systems. The 2-(methylamino)isobutyric acid-sensitive component of Na+-dependent uptake exhibited the usual characteristics of system A. The other two Na+-dependent systems, which we have named BCI(-)-dependent and BCl(-)-independent, are the new systems identified. These are broad specificity systems and were discriminated on the basis of inhibition analysis, Cl- dependency and the effect of preloading mammary tissue with amino acids. While L-aspargine inhibited the uptake of L-glutamine via both these broad specificity systems, L-homoserine inhibited the uptake of L-glutamine via only BCl(-)-dependent system. The uptake of L-glutamine via the BCl(-)-independent system was upregulated by preloading mammary tissue with L-serine, while BCl(-)-dependent system was unaffected. The Na+-independent uptake of L-glutamine was inhibited by 2-aminobicyclo-(2,2,1)heptane carboxylic acid and other neutral amino acids, and identified as the system L.