Knowledge,attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to blood cholinesterase level among tobacco farmers in Northern Thailand

Abstract

Tobacco is one of the crops using a lot of pesticides, especially organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. A cross-sectional study was conducted to investigate knowledge, attitudes, and Practices (KAP) related to blood cholinesterase levels related to pesticide use among tobacco farmers. A questionnaire and a reactive-paper finger blood test were completed by 44 tobacco farmers. The results showed that most of the participants were females (75.0%) between 51 and 60 years old (54.5%). Almost 95.5% of respondents acknowledged that they should wear a mask while spraying and most of them read pesticide labels before use (93.2%). Most of the tobacco farmers had moderate level of knowledge and attitudes, 63.6% and 70.5%, respectively and good practice (84.1%). The prevalence of risky levels of blood cholinesterase among tobacco farmers in the study area was high. The study found a strongly significant association between level of knowledge and blood cholinesterase level (P < 0.001). Policy implementation and risk communication will be introduced to the community in order to develop a safety program. Government authorities should be provided with the appropriate recommendations regarding pesticide exposure of tobacco farmers in this area.     

Farmers' management of cabbage and cauliflower pests in India and their approaches to crop protection

Cabbage (Brassica olearaceae var. capitata) and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) are two major vegetables produced and consumed in India. Over the years, they have been cultivated more intensively. This has resulted in higher rates of pest infestation, especially by the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) and higher pesticide use. This, in turn, has contributed to insecticide resistance, environmental degradation, and human health impacts, which have triggered a growing interest in alternative management techniques. There is a dearth of knowledge on current pest management practices in cabbage and crucifer. Knowledge about pest management practices is necessary to develop appropriate strategies such as Integrated Pest Management. The main purpose of this study was to obtain comprehensive information on pest management practices among farmers growing cabbage and cauliflower in India.A survey was conducted in the states of Gujarat, West Bengal, and Karnataka from October 2006 through January 2007. Three hundred farmers were interviewed to obtain information on pesticide use in cabbage and cauliflower production, the cost of pesticide use, and socioeconomic characters that influence cabbage and cauliflower production.Farmers relied on pesticides as the major and often exclusive crop protection strategy. Ten of the active ingredients (16.4% of all pesticides reported by all farmers in this survey) were listed as extremely or highly hazardous (classes Ia and Ib) by the World Health Organization. The results confirmed that pesticide use differs between states of India, but that location alone does not determine pesticide spraying pattern. A regression model was used to identify determinants of pesticide application frequency and pesticide cost per hectare. After controlling for location, individual level variables, such as age, education and experience, had significant effects on how often farmers sprayed. Farmers also spent more for pesticides, and sprayed more frequently on cauliflower than on cabbage and on open-pollinated varieties than on hybrid varieties.Our findings highlight the excessive use of pesticides in cabbage and cauliflower, and the reliance on pesticides as the only pest management strategy. The results confirm the need for alternative management strategies. Bt vegetables may be one of these alternative strategies. However, it is questionable whether cultivation of Bt vegetables will reduce the strong reliance on pesticides. Small-scale farmers will need training in the identification of pests, natural enemies, basic ecology, and integrated pest management strategies to ensure sustainable and safe vegetable production.     

Pesticide handling practices,health risks,and determinants of safety behavior among Iranian apple farmers

Common safety practices in pesticide use were assessed among apple farmers in Ardabil Province, Iran. With reference to the place of storing pesticides, most farmers (60%) stated that they store the pesticides in stalls and warehouses, while 8.5% stated that they store the pesticides in their houses. The majority of the farmers (71.5%) stated that they prepare the pesticide sprays in the orchards or next to irrigation wells. Almost one out of three farmers (32.8 %) reported that they dump the empty containers in the orchard fields and almost an equal proportion (30.2%) reported that they usually bury the empty containers. Irritating (burning) eyes and blurred vision were symptoms that the majority of respondents had experienced. Most farmers used trousers, long-sleeved blouses/shirts, and gloves when spraying, but coveralls and goggles were rarely used. Age and farming experience negatively affected PPE use and safety behavior, namely old and experienced farmers did not follow safety rules. On the contrary, education, information about pesticides, and farming as the main profession promoted safety behavior. Overall, significant levels of exposure among farmers can be concluded due to pesticide use. The extension services should aim human safety in relation to pesticide use in agriculture.     

Pesticide Use and Risk Perceptions among Farmers in Southwest Iran

Pesticide use and farmers’ perceptions of risk of unsafe use of pesticides were explored in Fars Province, Iran. One hundred and fifty-five farmers engaged in pesticide handling were selected through a proportional stratified random sampling method with age as the stratification variable. Most of the farmers were not following basic pesticide safety measures and the majority of them (about 60%) were not using any protective equipment when spraying pesticides. Based on four identified factors, which explained 58% of the total variance in risk perceptions of unsafe use of pesticides, three segments of farmers were revealed. Segment A included 30.3% of the farmers who had the lowest perceived risk of unsafe use of pesticides (i.e., they perceived unsafe use of pesticides as not so dangerous). Segment B, which was the largest segment revealed, showed intermediate perceived risk of unsafe use of pesticides and all of four factors as well. However, segment C with 16.7% of farmers, reported the highest perceived risk of unsafe use of pesticides (i.e., they perceived unsafe use of pesticides as very dangerous). To develop a more targeted agricultural extension program, selected characteristics with respect to each segment were explored and compared.     

Pesticides in the Cagayan valley (Philippines): usage, drift patterns and the exposure of farmers differing in income and market access

Over the past ten years, the amount and number of different types of pesticides have increased significantly, which led to a growing concern about the possible adverse effects on human health and the environment. This is particularly true for countries where regulations are not strictly implemented and farmers' knowledge of safe handling is often inadequate. This paper discusses the results of a series of spray experiments to determine drift patterns along field boundaries and the exposure of farmers during their usual spraying exercises. Moreover, farmers' pesticide usage and methods of application will be described, and the effects of income and market accessibility on pesticide use patterns will be investigated. It is based on a study conducted in four villages located at increasing distance from the national highway leading to regional markets and connecting the Cagayan Valley in Northeast Luzon with Manila. The 20 pesticides encountered in this study cover 18 different active ingredients, 9 of which are classified by the WHO as 'highly hazardous' or 'moderately hazardous'. The EPA has classified at least 6 of the encountered pesticide formulations as Restricted Use Pesticides. Nevertheless, all pesticides are freely sold in stores or on markets and applied by farmers without personal protection in an unsafe manner. The farmers living nearest to the highway have the highest income and largest farms. Yet they are most at risk, having easiest access to pesticides and spraying the largest quantities of pesticides per hectare, compared to the farmers living at greater distance from the highway. It is recommended to review the list of pesticides approved for use in the Philippines and discern between Restricted and General Use Pesticides. Several recommendations for improving the implementation of pesticide policies and the IPM program are given.     

Exposure risks to pesticide applicators posed by the use of electric backpack sprayers and stretcher-mounted sprayers in orchards

Abstract

The introduction of the pesticide registration system in pesticide risk assessments has promoted the scientific and safe use of pesticides, and the assessment of occupational exposure risk. In the present study, we performed an experiment in a citrus orchard subject to normal orchard management practices. By measuring the exposure of applicators’ (farmers and technicians) body parts to 45% malathion emulsifiable concentrate during its application using electric backpack sprayers (0.25?KPa) and stretcher-mounted sprayers (1.5?KPa), the unit exposure (UE) was determined. The risks of exposure for pesticide applicators who adopted five different protective measures (A: no personal protective equipment (PPE), i.e., no clothes, no gloves, no caps, and no socks; B: short-sleeved top and shorts; C: short-sleeved top, shorts, and a single pair of gloves; D: short-sleeved top, shorts, a single pair of gloves, and a cap; E: long-sleeved top, long pants, a single pair of gloves, and a cap) were also assessed. The results were as follows: 1) The total levels of exposure for pesticide applicators using electric backpack sprayers and stretcher-mounted sprayers were 3613.63?µg and 5654.28?µg, respectively. When electric backpack sprayers were used, the body parts that had the highest exposure were the head (13.8%), hands (19.9%) and back (14.0%), and when stretcher-mounted sprayers were used, the hands (32.5%) and lower legs (21.1%) had the highest level of exposure; 2) In the absence of PPE, the UE values for farmers who used electric backpack sprayers and farmers who used stretcher-mounted sprayers were significantly different. However, when PPE was used, the difference in UE values between the farmers using the two different types of sprayers was not significant; 3) When protective measure A was adopted, the risk quotient (RQ) values of the farmers and technicians who used electric backpack sprayers for the application of malathion were 1.44 and 0.54, respectively; the corresponding RQ values when protective measure B was adopted were 0.97 and 0.28, respectively. When stretcher-mounted sprayers were used for the application of chlorpyrifos, the RQ value of the farmers who adopted protective measure E was 0.43 while other types of PPE use resulted in RQ values greater than 1. In contrast, the RQ value for technicians was 1.62 when protective measure A was used and 1.02 when protective measure B was adopted, whereas other types of PPE use resulted in RQ values less than 1. Therefore, besides increasing the awareness of personal protection among pesticide applicators, improvement in the management of pesticide use and the enhancement of standard operations are of practical significance for controlling occupational exposure to pesticides.     

A method for comparing pesticide usage patterns between farmers

A method is described for standardizing data from surveys of insecticide and fungicide usage, to enable comparisons to be made between farmers. Pesticide usage by the fruit and vegetable farmers surveyed was initially coded in units, and then standardized by taking each farmer's deviation from a regional average for the crop, expressed as standard measure. The vegetable farmers studied were less variable in their usage of pesticides for the control of aphid, caterpillar and blight on crops harvested late in the season rather than early (cabbage, lettuce, potatoes and sprouts). There was evidence that farmers did not heed the Beaumont period warnings issued by the Agricultural Development and Advisory Service (ADAS) for blight attack on potatoes. Also on potato crops, insecticide use against aphids was influenced by the level of fungicide usage for blight control. Standardized insecticide and fungicide usage values for individual farmers were very uniform. A two-way analysis of variance showed that most of the variation in the model was accounted for by variation between farmers rather than by variation between crops on the same farm. By expressing pesticide usage data in this standardized form, one can measure the element in pesticide usage which is not related to pest incidence. This can then be used to study the influence of other factors on pesticide usage.     

Frequency of sister-chromatid exchange among greenhouse farmers exposed to pesticides

Sister-chromatid exchange (SCE) was measured in peripheral lymphocytes of 104 greenhouse farmers exposed to pesticides and 44 unexposed workers. The results of SCEs are expressed in two variables: (a) mean number of SCEs per chromosome and, (b) proportion of high frequency cells (cells with more than eight SCEs). A high correlation was found between these two variables. The adjusted means of both SCEs variables were significantly higher among the farmers compared with the unexposed group (P < 0.01). Adjustment was made for smoking, age, education, and origin.The adjusted means of both SCE variables, were significantly elevated (P < 0.05) among the farmers who prepared and applied more than 70% of the pesticides by themselves compared with those who prepared and applied less than 70% of the pesticides by themselves. Both SCEs variables were also significantly elevated (P < 0.05) among farmers who were involved in more than 7.4 sprays per year compared with those with 7.4 or less sprays per year (P < 0.05). We found a tendency towards elevation of the two variables of SCEs among those who did not use protective measures while preparing the pesticides.Evaluation of the influence of years of exposure on the frequency of SCEs showed that the two variables of SCEs were higher among those farmers who were exposed to pesticides for more than 21 years than among those with less than 21 years of exposure. The variables that had the most influence on the elevation of SCEs were self-preparation of the pesticide mixtures and the number of sprayings per year. Because the farmers used a mixture of almost 24 different chemical classes it was impossible to attribute exposure to a specific pesticide or group of pesticides to single farmers.Our finding of a significant increase of SCEs frequency in peripheral lymphocytes in greenhouse farmers indicates a potential cytogenetic hazard due to pesticides exposure.     

Distribution of Nosema meligethi (Microsporida) in populations of Meligethes aeneus (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) in Turkey

This is the first study on Nosema meligethi in populations of Meligethes aeneus in Turkey. In total, four of the 2020 beetles studied were infected with the parasite, giving an infection average of 0.2% in Turkey. Infection was observed in two of the eight localities investigated, and the infection rates in these localities were similar: 2.94 and 2.86%. N. meligethi infection was not observed in 1676 beetles (83% of the total studied) from five localities, including the main Brassica oleracea growing area, where chemical pesticides are commonly used. Three hundred and forty‐four beetles (17% of the total studied) were collected from three localities from uncultivated areas where there is no chemical pesticide application; infection was found in beetles from two of these localities. This study confirms that pesticide usage at sampling sites may play a role in the occurrence of N. meligethi, because the samples from which Nosema was detected originated from areas in which pesticides are not used.     

Efficiency of chemical and organic pesticides for Conogethes punctiferalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in commercial chestnut and walnut fields

Chestnuts and walnuts are ones of most important forest products in Korea. However, Conogethes punctiferalis has been increasingly causing economic damages to chestnuts and walnuts. Currently, its management is mainly relayed on aerial application of pesticides. To select pesticides of C. punctiferalis for aerial application, damage rate of chestnut and walnut fruits and death rate of C. punctiferalis were analyzed according to selected pesticides. Experiments were conducted during two years by randomly applying chemical pesticide (i.e., Chlorfluazuron 5 % in 2018 and Thiacloprid 10 % in 2019), organic pesticide (i.e., paraffin oil 8 % + plant extracts (90 %) from Styphnolobium japonicum, Melia azedarach, and Dysphania ambrosioides), and no treatment (i.e., control) into an area which were divided into three from a whole commercial field. All pesticides used in this study could suppress damages of walnuts and chestnuts by C. punctiferalis. However, these pesticides could not kill their larvae inside of fruits. Thus, aerial spraying these pesticides for C. punctiferalis should be applied at optimal timing or slightly earlier than optimal timing. By considering honeybee toxicity, cost, and management efficiency, Chlorfluazuron 5 % was the best as an aerial application pesticide among these three pesticide in this study.     

Biological yields through agricultural extension activities and services: A case study from Al-Baha region – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

PurposeThis research determines the extent to which farmers benefit from agricultural extension activities and services through realizing higher biological crop yields in the Al-Baha region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Additionally, the nature of the relationship between the personal, economic and social characteristics of farmers and the degree to which they benefit from agricultural extension activities and services are studied.MethodologyA simple random sample representing the community of 315 farmers was drawn. Data were collected through a personal interview with a pre-tested questionnaire to satisfy the objectives of the study. Data are subjected to analyses and are interpreted in terms of percentages, arithmetic averages, and standard deviations in addition to the simple Pearson correlation coefficients.ResultsThe results show that most of the respondents depend on personal experience, friends, family and neighbors, merchants and sellers of agricultural production supplies as sources of agricultural information for enhanced crop yields. Multiple regression analysis reveals that both the educational status and the agricultural information sources are important factors that increase farmers benefit from extension activities. Farmers receive most benefits from the extension activities and services from bringing in foreign workers, conducting field trips to farms, and identifying problems faced by farmers.Research limitations/implicationsThe outcome of this questionnaire limits generalization of the findings for other parts of the Kingdom due to geographical and natural resources variations.Practical implicationsThe personal and socio-economic characteristics of the surveyed population provide the extension service with insight into their composition – a basis to formulate workable extension programs. For the extension planners of the area, this effort provides a baseline study and may assist with targeting the appropriate farmers and catering the right solutions to the problems. Such a study will help devise meaningful extension programs and save time and resources.Originality/valueLittle previous research on the usefulness of the Extension Service has been conducted in the region.ConclusionsEffective, well-planned extension programs targeting the educated and mature farmers provided more benefits and helped them obtain higher crop yields.     

Tick control practices in Burkina Faso and acaricide resistance survey in Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) geigyi (Acari: Ixodidae)

Traditional systems account for 95 % of the livestock produced in Burkina Faso. Tick infestation hampers livestock productivity in this area. However, little information exists on tick-control practices used by livestock farmers. We interviewed 60 stockbreeders working in traditional farming systems to obtain the first data on tick-control practices. Sixteen farmers (27 %) did not use conventional practices: seven removed ticks by hand or plastered cattle with dung or engine oil; nine farmers treated cattle with crop pesticides. Forty-four farmers (73 %) used mainly synthetic pyrethroids (SP; either alphacypermethrin or deltamethrin in 20 and 18 farms, respectively) and occasionally amitraz (N = 6). Intervals between treatments varied significantly depending on the chemical used: most farmers using crop pesticides (100 %), amitraz (100 %) or alphacypermethrin (80 %) adjusted tick-control to tick-burden, whereas farmers using deltamethrin tended more to follow a tick-control schedule. Perception of tick-control effectiveness significantly varied among practices: tick-control failures were more frequently reported by farmers using alphacypermethrin (55 %) than by those using either other conventional acaricides (17 %) or crop pesticides (0 %). We investigated whether this could indicate actual development of SP-resistance in cattle ticks. First, using the larval packet test technique, we confirmed that the computation of LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ was repeatable and remained stable across generations of the Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) geigyi Houndé laboratory strain. We then collected from the field fully-engorged female R. geigyi to evaluate the SP-resistance relative to the Houndé reference strain. We did not detect any case of SP-resistance in the field-derived R. geigyi ticks.     

Macroinvertebrate/sediment relationships along a pesticide gradient in Danish streams

Twenty-nine Danish streams were investigated in September 1998. The streams drained catchments of varying hydrology, topography, soil type and land use. In each stream, the newly accumulated streambed sediment was sampled and subsequently analysed for pesticides. In each stream, five replicate macroinvertebrate samples were taken in the same sediments as the pesticide samples. In addition, five samples were taken in riffles to provide a complete picture of macroinvertebrate community composition. The number of detected pesticides reflected soil type and land use: in agricultural catchments on clay soils the average number of pesticides were 4.3±2.2; on sandy soils 2.6±1.0, while only 1.5±0.6 pesticides were found in streams without agricultural activities. The macroinvertebrate composition showed clear changes along this gradient of sediment pesticide concentrations. The number of the amphipod Gammarus pulex was negatively correlated with sediment pesticide concentration, while the number of Oligochaeta and Hirudinae was positively correlated. The findings indicate that pesticides have a potential to structure macroinvertebrate communities in Danish streams. However, agricultural impact is more than pesticides, and several other factors, such as channelisation, affect the macroinvertebrate community and these are not easily separated.     

Toward an Integrated Understanding of Pesticide Use Intensity in Costa Rican Vegetable Farming

Understanding the factors that influence the adoption of synthetic pesticides has to date overshadowed explanations of variation in pesticide intensity. I conducted a survey of vegetable farmers in Northern Cartago and the Ujarrás Valley, Costa Rica, in 2003–2004 with the goal of explaining differences in pesticide intensity with reference to socioeconomic, political economic, and agroecological characteristics and relationships. Using ordinary least squares regression models, this paper explores the factors that influence pesticide use intensity in potato and squash production. Results indicate that many variables strongly influence pesticide intensity, including variables related to the farmer, farm household, political-economic relationships, the biophysical environment, and agroecological relationships. Conclusions discuss the need for an integrated approach to adequately understand pesticide intensity and potential policy interventions including agroecological education and extension, increased enforcement of pesticide residue limits in the national market, and land reform to allow for longer fallow periods.

Quantification of Changes in Chemical Pesticide Human Health Risk Following the Introduction of Bt Cotton and Herbicide-tolerant Soybean: A Case Study

Human health risks associated with changes in synthetic chemical pesticide use following the introduction of genetically modified crops are quantified in this article. Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ) cotton and herbicide-tolerant (HT) soybean, two genetically modified crops, were chosen as the focus for this study based on their global popularity. An innovative multimedia total exposure model, CalTOX, was used to calculate the health risks for two target populations, before and after the introduction of Bt cotton and HT soybean. Major results include the quantification of incremental lifetime cancer risk based on a time-weighted average exposure, and the quantification of hazard ratios for non-cancer effects based on the maximum exposure rate value, both computed over the exposure duration. Results show that human health risks are not intuitively and necessarily reduced with the reduction of pesticide use. For example, more trifluralin was used after the introduction of HT soybeans in Iowa and Minnesota, leading to higher risks. Moreover, the general population may have larger exposures to pesticides when compared with the population living in areas where pesticides are actually applied. This may occur because exposure to pesticides is not only dependent on geographical distance from the contaminated area, but also strongly dependent on other factors, such as the characteristic travel distance and environmental persistence.     

Pesticides,caution, and experimentation in st. Vincent,Eastern Caribbean

Understanding the problem of pesticide misuse in the Third World requires analysis of both political- economic forces and local- level variations in peasant behavior and attitudes. This study, based on 12 months of fieldwork during 1988–1989, examines growing agrochemical dependence and misuse in St. Vincent and the Grenadines in the East Caribbean. Consistent with findings from other political-economic studies, this research documents the influence of the state, export agriculture, consumer pressure, and foreign aid in leading to increased chemical use in agriculture. This study also considers the extent to which farmer behavior and attitudes limit or exacerbate the problems that can accompany increased pesticide use. Some researchers emphasize that farmers are careless and indiscriminate when using pesticides, thereby contributing to pesticide-related problems. In contrast, data from the village level reveal that although some farmers are careless, others are cautious in their use of pesticides, a pattern reflective of variability among farmers in pesticide- use practices and attitudes in general. By exploring the issue of variability in patterns of pesticide use among villagers, this paper emphasizes the utility of the concepts of individuality and experimentation in agriculture in examining problems of pesticide misuse.     

Plant maintenance and environmental stress. Summarising the effects of contrasting elevation,soil, and latitude on Quercus ilex respiration rates

Aims

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are major staple food crops consumed worldwide. Zinc (Zn) deficiency represents a common micronutrient deficiency in human populations, especially in regions of the world where staple food crops are the main source of daily calorie intake. Foliar application of Zn fertilizer has been shown to be effective for enriching food crop grains with Zn to desirable amounts for human nutrition. For promoting adoption of this practice by growers, it is important to know whether foliar Zn fertilizers can be applied along with pesticides to wheat, rice and also common bean grown across different soil and environmental conditions.

Methods

The feasibility of foliar application of zinc sulphate (ZnSO₄.7H₂O) to wheat, rice and common bean in combination with commonly used five fungicides and nine insecticides was investigated under field conditions at the 31 sites-years of seven countries, i.e., China, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Turkey, Brazil and Zambia.

Results

Significant increases in grain yields were observed with foliar Zn/foliar Zn?+?pesticide (5.2–7.7 % of wheat and 1.6–4.2 % of rice) over yields with no Zn treatment. In wheat, as average of all experiments, higher grain Zn concentrations were recorded with foliar Zn alone (41.2 mg kg^?1) and foliar Zn?+?pesticide (38.4 mg kg^?1) as compared to no Zn treatment (28.0 mg kg^?1). Though the magnitude of grain Zn enrichment was lesser in rice than wheat, grain Zn concentrations in brown rice were significantly higher with foliar Zn (24.1 mg kg^?1) and foliar Zn?+?pesticide (23.6 mg kg^?1) than with no Zn (19.1 mg kg^?1). In case of common bean, grain Zn concentration increased from 68 to 78 mg kg^?1 with foliar Zn alone and to 77 mg kg^?1 with foliar Zn applied in combination with pesticides. Thus, grain Zn enrichment with foliar Zn, without or with pesticides, was almost similar in all the tested crops.

Conclusions

The results obtained at the 31 experimental site-years of seven countries revealed that foliar Zn fertilization can be realized in combination with commonly-applied pesticides to contribute Zn biofortification of grains in wheat, rice and common bean. This agronomic approach represents a useful practice for the farmers to alleviate Zn deficiency problem in human populations.

     

Transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Rice Is Safer to Aquatic Ecosystems than Its Non-Transgenic Counterpart

Rice lines genetically modified with the crystal toxin genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have experienced rapid development, with biosafety certificates for two Bt rice lines issued in 2009. There has still been no commercial release of these lines yet due to public concerns about human health and environmental risks. Some studies confirmed that Bt rice was as safe as conventional rice to non-target organisms when pesticides were not applied, however, pesticides are still required in Bt rice to control non-lepidopteran pests. In this study, we assessed the environmental effects of two Bt rice lines expressing either the cry1Ab/1Ac or cry2A genes, respectively, by using zooplanktons as indicator species under normal field management practices using pesticides when required. In the whole rice growing season, non-Bt rice was sprayed 5 times while Bt rice was sprayed 2 times, which ensured both rice achieved a normal yield. Field investigations showed that rice type (Bt and non-Bt) significantly influenced zooplankton abundance and diversity, which were up to 95% and 80% lower in non-Bt rice fields than Bt rice fields. Laboratory rearing showed that water from non-Bt rice fields was significantly less suitable for the survival and reproduction of Daphnia magna and Paramecium caudatum in comparison with water from Bt rice fields. Higher pesticide residues were detected in the water from non-Bt than Bt rice fields, accounting for the bad performance of zooplankton in non-Bt field water. Our results demonstrate that Bt rice is safer to aquatic ecosystems than non-Bt rice, and its commercialization will be beneficial for biodiversity restoration in rice-based ecosystems.     

Characterization of Farmer’s knowledge and management practices of papaya mealybug Paracoccus magnatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Tanzania

Papaya mealybug (PMB) is a serious insect pest for papaya production in Sub-Saharan Africa, limiting production potential in farming communities. We did a household survey to evaluate the Characteristics of farmers'' knowledge, challenges, and current (PMB) control practices in four papaya growing regions of Tanzania namely, Tanga, Dodoma, Pwani, and Katavi involving 100 papaya farmers. The study found that 96% of farmers reported PMB, as a major challenge in papaya production. Very few (0.8%) of the farmers were knowledgeable on insect pest identification. Chemical pesticides were the only option for PMB control, and 43.0% of farmers were able to access and apply. We also found that 36.4% of the farmers were aware of the adverse effects of chemical pesticides. Furthermore, the study observed that 0.3% of farmers use botanical pesticides. Additionally, the study observed that 44.1% of farmers use control measures against PMB, the remaining 55.9% did not practice any control measure, thus leading to low papaya yields observed in the study regions. Our findings provide insights to farmers into the use of plant-based pesticides, mainly plant essential oils, and its benefits that may promote farmers'' attitudes towards increasing papaya yield and reducing chemical pesticide use to avoid pest resistance.