Dung avoidance as a possible mechanism in competition between wild and domestic ungulates: two experiments with chamois <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rupicapra rupicapra</Emphasis>

Wild ungulates often adjust spatial behaviour where they coexist with livestock. In European mountains, chamois Rupicapra rupicapra or R. pyrenaica commonly avoid alpine pastures used by domestic sheep. Mechanisms leading to competitive losing out of the wild species are not well understood, but mostly, resource competition is inferred and sometimes demonstrated. We hypothesised that chamois need to minimise the risk of intestinal parasite uptake and therefore would avoid pastures contaminated with sheep dung. We tested this in two experiments by contaminating feeding patches of wild and captive chamois with (parasite-free) sheep faeces. Wild chamois did not avoid grazing sites or plots on which sheep dung had been placed at a (low) density representing the commonly encountered situation in the Swiss Alps. Captive chamois strongly reduced browsing time on small trees given for food when the surroundings of the trees were sprayed with a watery faecal solution. We concluded that the odour signalled a potential high risk of parasite infection to the captive chamois, whereas the density of sheep dung on the grazing site of wild chamois was not high enough to be perceived as a risk. The need to minimise endoparasite uptake from faeces may therefore play a role in driving spatial behaviour of wild ungulates and could result in competitive imbalance between wild and domestic ungulates.     

Some aspects of social behaviour in domestic sheep

Aspects of social behaviour in domestic sheep were studied by observations of undisturbed flocks. A group identity was found to develop when small flocks are established: when two such groups of similar age and sex are amalgamated, random mixing takes up to 3 weeks to develop. Breed identity was also found to exist: within flocks made up from groups of sheep of different breeds, the sheep had a strong bias for associating with others of their own breed both whilst grazing and whilst camping, and this remains even after 2 years of grazing together. This breed identity remained in the offspring born into a flock of ewes of different breeds.     

Re-sequencing regions of the ovine Y chromosome in domestic and wild sheep reveals novel paternal haplotypes

The male-specific region of the ovine Y chromosome (MSY) remains poorly characterized, yet sequence variants from this region have the potential to reveal the wild progenitor of domestic sheep or examples of domestic and wild paternal introgression. The 5' promoter region of the sex-determining gene SRY was re-sequenced using a subset of wild sheep including bighorn ( Ovis canadensis ), thinhorn ( Ovis dalli spp.), urial ( Ovis vignei ), argali ( Ovis ammon ), mouflon ( Ovis musimon ) and domestic sheep ( Ovis aries ). Seven novel SNPs ( oY 2– oY 8) were revealed; these were polymorphic between but not within species. Re-sequencing and fragment analysis was applied to the MSY microsatellite SRYM18 . It contains a complex compound repeat structure and sequencing of three novel size fragments revealed that a pentanucleotide element remained fixed, whilst a dinucleotide element displayed variability within species. Comparison of the sequence between species revealed that urial and argali sheep grouped more closely to the mouflon and domestic breeds than the pachyceriforms (bighorn and thinhorn). SNP and microsatellite data were combined to define six previously undetected haplotypes. Analysis revealed the mouflon as the only species to share a haplotype with domestic sheep, consistent with its status as a feral domesticate that has undergone male-mediated exchange with domestic animals. A comparison of the remaining wild species and domestic sheep revealed that O. aries is free from signatures of wild sheep introgression.     

Monitoring exposure to avian influenza viruses in wild mammals

• 1 Avian influenza (AI) viruses primarily circulate in wild waterfowl populations and are occasionally transmitted to domestic poultry flocks. However, the possible roles of other wildlife species, such as wild mammals, in AI virus ecology have not been adequately addressed.
• 2 Due to their habitat and behaviour, many wild mammals may be capable of transmitting pathogens among wild and domestic populations. Exposure to AI viruses has been reported in an array of wild and domestic animals. The presence of wild mammals on farms has been identified as a risk factor for at least one poultry AI outbreak in North America. These reports suggest the need for seroprevalence studies examining the exposure of wild mammals to AI viruses.
• 3 Serological tests are routinely used to assess domestic poultry, domestic swine and human exposure to influenza A viruses, but these tests have not been validated for use in wild mammals. As such, some of these protocols may require adjustments or may be inappropriate for use in serology testing of wild mammals. Herein, we review these serological techniques and evaluate their potential usefulness in AI surveillance of wild mammals. We call for care to be taken when applying serological tests outside their original area of validation, and for continued assay verification for multiple species and virus strains.

     

Reproductive potential of domestic Ovis aries for preservation of threatened Ovis orientalis isphahanica: in vitro and in vivo studies

Although the potential use of reproductive biotechnology for safeguarding of endangered wildlife species is undoubted, initial evaluation of the genetic and reproductive relationship between the endangered mammals and those closely related species is indispensable. Isfahan mouflon Ovis orientalis isphahanica is now considered as a threatened species by International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Therefore, little is known about the biology of this species. This study was carried out to investigate the possible reproductive potential of domestic sheep for ex situ conservation of the Isfahan mouflon. Somatic cell cultures were taken from ear biopsies of the wild and domestic sheep and were used for karyotype analysis. Semen samples were collected by electroejaculator from the wild and domestic rams. The spermatological characteristics of the collected semen samples were determined and used for both cryopreservation and cross-insemination of the synchronized wild and domestic female sheep. To establish a cryobank for the threatened species biomaterials, freezed samples of the somatic cells and semen were transferred to a cryotank. The result suggested that Isfahan mouflon has conserved its chromosomal integrity as previously observed and contains the same chromosomal number as the domestic sheep (2n = 54). The semen samples of both species revealed similar cryoviability (>35% gross motility postthawing). Cross-insemination of both species resulted in successful pregnancy. It was suggested that domestic sheep possesses the required biological characteristics to be considered for safeguarding of the Isfahan mouflon.     

The feeding habits of wolves in relation to large prey availability in northern Italy

We investigated wolf feeding habits in relation to the abundance of wild and domestic ungulates to test the hypothesis that large prey are preferred and that their abundance affects the use of other food categories and diet breadth. We determined diet composition by scat analysis from December 1987 to December 1992. The research was carried out in three study areas located in northern Italy and characterised by marked differences in wild and domestic ungulate abundance. In study area A (low wild and domestic ungulate availability) fruits, livestock, other vertebrates and wild ungulates made up the bulk of the diet (71% in volume). In area B (high availability of livestock) wolf diet was mainly based on sheep and wild boars (80% in volume). In study area C (high availability of wild ungulates) wild ungulates were the main food of wolves (90% in volume). Significant differences were found among study areas in the mean percentage volume of all food categories and in particular for wild ungulates, livestock, other vertebrates and fruits (p < 0.0001 in all cases). Diet breadth decreased in areas with high availability of large wild and domestic herbivores. The use of livestock species was lower where there was high abundance, richness and diversity of the wild ungulate guild. Selection for wild ungulate species was partially affected by their abundance: however other factors as prey social behaviour, adaptability to the habitat (for introduced species), and body size could have an important role in species selection by wolves. In particular in area C wild boars were selected for, roe and red deers avoided, and fallow deers and mouflons used as available. Livestock species were used in relation to their abundance and accessibility, in particular sheep were selected for and cattle avoided; but if calves bom in the pastures were considered as the only available cattle, they were selected for and sheep were used as available. Large and in particular wild herbivores were found to be of great importance for the wolf population maintenance in northern Italy, one of the most important recovery areas of Mediterranean wolves.     

A predictive diagnostic model for wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) habitat suitability in Iran

Wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) as the true ancestor of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) is currently listed as vulnerable (VU) by IUCN. Effective conservation of this species requires collecting all available ecological knowledge into a single framework that could be used for management decision making. Use of Bayesian Belief Networks for such purposes have been advocated over recent decades as this approach can integrate different sources of knowledge and perform comprehensive analyses. We built a decision support tool using BBN to assist in habitat management of wild sheep populations throughout the species’ geographical range. The behaviour of the model was tested using scenario and sensitivity analysis. Habitat security, food and water suitability, and thermal cover were recognised as the main habitat variables determining wild sheep habitat suitability. Integrating the complex interactions between variables, the model can be applied for both diagnostic and predictive analyses answering “what if” and “how” questions. This approach can assist wildlife conservationists for building similar models for other poorly-studied threatened species.     

Genetic structure of European sheep breeds

Large-scale evaluations of genetic diversity in domestic livestock populations are necessary so that region-specific conservation measures can be implemented. We performed the first such survey in European sheep by analysing 820 individuals from 29 geographically and phenotypically diverse breeds and a closely related wild species at 23 microsatellite loci. In contrast to most other domestic species, we found evidence of widespread heterozygote deficit within breeds, even after removing loci with potentially high frequency of null alleles. This is most likely due to subdivision among flocks (Wahlund effect) and use of a small number of rams for breeding. Levels of heterozygosity were slightly higher in southern than in northern breeds, consistent with declining diversity with distance from the Near Eastern centre of domestication. Our results highlight the importance of isolation in terms of both geography and management in augmenting genetic differentiation through genetic drift, with isolated northern European breeds showing the greatest divergence and hence being obvious targets for conservation. Finally, using a Bayesian cluster analysis, we uncovered evidence of admixture between breeds, which has important implications for breed management.     

How Did Domestication Change the Hair Morphology in Sheep and Goats?

We analysed macro-and microscopic features of dorsal guard hairs in 21 specimens of wild and domestic sheep and goats. We integrated and extended the available data on hair morphology of wild species and provide a first comparative analysis of hair structure of domestic forms. Domestic sheep and goats, probably due to a convergence process under artificial selection, show similar medullary features to each other and different medullary structures from their relative wild relatives. Different breeds show a diverse alteration of the medullary structure probably correlated to the duration of the domestication process. Domestic sheep have a cuticular structure different from the relative wild ancestor, while domestic goats do not show clear differences in the cuticle from the related wild species. The strong artificial selection for wool production may have transformed the hair structure of the sheep, but not that of the goat. We described the effects of age on the microscopic structure of hair, which have not yet been investigated. The medullary structure and the cuticular pattern in domestic forms do not change with age, as seen in wild species, because juveniles characters are retained in adults due to domestication.     

A genome-wide set of SNPs detects population substructure and long range linkage disequilibrium in wild sheep

The development of genomic resources for wild species is still in its infancy. However, cross-species utilization of technologies developed for their domestic counterparts has the potential to unlock the genomes of organisms that currently lack genomic resources. Here, we apply the OvineSNP50 BeadChip, developed for domestic sheep, to two related wild ungulate species: the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) and the thinhorn sheep (Ovis dalli). Over 95% of the domestic sheep markers were successfully genotyped in a sample of fifty-two bighorn sheep while over 90% were genotyped in two thinhorn sheep. Pooling the results from both species identified 868 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 570 were detected in bighorn sheep, while 330 SNPs were identified in thinhorn sheep. The total panel of SNPs was able to discriminate between the two species, assign population of origin for bighorn sheep and detect known relationship classes within one population of bighorn sheep. Using an informative subset of these SNPs (n=308), we examined the extent of genome-wide linkage disequilibrium (LD) within one population of bighorn sheep and found that high levels of LD persist over 4 Mb.     

Parasites of the feral sheep of Pitt Island,Chatham group

Abstract

Samples from the feral and domestic sheep on Pitt Island were examined for parasites. The feral sheep had never been treated against parasites, and most were due for extermination. The domestic sheep were examined by way of comparison. The sheep ked (Melophagus ovinus) and the chorioptic mange mite (Chorioptes bovis) were found on feral but not domestic sheep. The sheep body louse (Damalinia ovis) was found on domestic but not feral sheep. Lung nodules and liver lesions, presumed to be caused by parasites, were significantly more prevalent in domestic than in feral sheep. The prevalence of Cysticercus tenuicollis cysts and Sarcocystis spp. macrocysts was similar in feral and domestic sheep. The species of intestinal nematode and their relative abundance in feral sheep were similar to those in mainland sheep. Fewer feral sheep were found to have antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii when compared with other breeds; the proportion with antibodies to Sarcocystis ovicanis differed little from that in the mainland flocks, however. The data are compared with information from the Campbell Island feral sheep flock.     

THE FORMATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF MIXED-SPECIES INSECTIVOROUS BIRD FLOCKS IN WEST AFRICAN SAVANNA WOODLAND

Mixed-species flocks of birds were observed during the wet season (July to September 1975) in savanna woodland in Ghana. Thirty-four flocks contained birds of 56 species in 20 families, including insectivorous, granivorous, and nectarivorous species, using a wide range of foraging methods. Only two species occurred in more than half the flocks. There was no correlation between the number of flocks joined by a species and its abundance in the community. Among insectivores, but not granivores, the species which joined most flocks were those which habitually occurred in the largest single-species groups. All stages of breeding activity were represented by the various members. Some species joined flocks only while these were passing through their territories. Of the two species which were present most frequently, there were no differences between mixed and single-species flocks for Eremomela pusilla, but Parus leucomelas foraged and called on more occasions in mixed flocks than single-species flocks, though the rates of foraging and calling were related only to the number of P. leucomelas present. Groups of P. leucomelas appeared to initiate some flocks by attraction due to their conspicuous wing-bars, active movement, and loud calls. Black-and-white species joined them first, followed by birds of other plumage patterns. The advantages of mixed flocking are thought to be connected with finding patches of the food of bark- and foliage-searching insectivores, which were the only species regularly seen foraging in the flocks. Because of dry season burning which leaves small unburnt patches of savanna, these insect species may share a common, patchy distribution. Birds may also gain protection from predators, and some species probably gain no advantages. The species composition and behaviour of flocks previously recorded elsewhere in African savannas are similar to the Ghana flocks.     

In vivo and in vitro fertilizing capacity of cryopreserved European mouflon [Ovis gmelini musimon] spermatozoa used to restore genetically rare and isolated populations

European mouflon sheep are an endangered species of ovidae residing primarily in the mountenous habitat of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. The purpose of this study was to assess the fertilizing capacity of cryopreserved European mouflon spermatozoa after AI in synchronized mouflon and domestic ewes and after IVF in in vitro matured mouflon and domestic ewe oocytes collected by OPU technique. Domestic ram (Ovis aries) spermatozoa served as control. Semen was collected by artificial vagina from three mouflons and three domestic rams during the breeding season and was cryopreserved. At thawing, no significant differences in sperm viability were found between the wild and the domestic species (53.1 +/- 4.6% versus 56.0 +/- 4.7%) whereas the percentage of acrosome-intact sperm was lower in mouflon (55.5 +/- 4.6%) than in ram semen (62.7 +/- 3.1%; P < 0.05). Lambing rate did not differ between synchronized mouflon and domestic ewes (5/11 versus 8/12) after 150 and 156 days of pregnancy, respectively. After two OPU sessions, 87 and 132 oocytes were collected from three hyperstimulated mouflon and three domestic ewes. Cryopreserved/thawed semen was inseminated with an endoscope into the uterus of corresponding species during the non-breeding season. The oocytes were matured and fertilized in vitro; 61/73 mouflon and 81/101 domestic ewe oocytes were found to be fertilized. From these, we obtained 6/61 and 17/81 blastocysts. After vitrification and thawing, the hatching rate showed no significant difference between mouflon and sheep blastocysts (4/6 versus 14/17). In conclusion, our data showed that cryopreserved mouflon spermatozoa can be successfully used to carry out a genuine and complete program of genetic restoration in small and isolated groups of European mouflons.     

Amelogenin cross-amplification in the family Bovidae and its application for sex determination

Sex-specific sequence variability of the amelogenin gene had been observed in a variety of mammalian species. In our study, the suitability of the amelogenin gene for sex determination in different species of the family Bovidae was examined. Based on a sequence insertion/deletion characteristic for X- and Y-specific amelogenin (AMELX and AMELY), PCR amplification on male and female genomic DNA from domestic and wild bovine species, sheep and goat, consistently displayed a sex-specific pattern. Thus, the amelogenin amplification by PCR proved to be a reliable method for sex determination not only in domestic and wild species of the tribe Bovini, but also in the related species sheep and goat. Sex determination using the amelogenin-based assay can be performed with at least 40 pg of genomic DNA. The assay enables the investigation of small amounts of DNA from meat, hair, bones, and embryo biopsies to identify species and sex for a number of applications in animal production, forensics, population research, and monitoring within the family Bovidae. Sequence comparison of the amplified amelogenin gene region specific for male and female animals from domestic and wild bovide species revealed further sequence variations within and between sexes as well as between species. Sequence variations in the AMELX gene can be applied to discriminate Bos and Bison individuals from other bovine species, and also from sheep and goat.     

Is order of voluntarily entrance to milking parlour related to Toxoplasma gondii infection in sheep—A brief note

Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite influencing behaviour of its hosts. The parasite is often present in sheep flocks without clinical symptoms. The order of moving to the milking parlour was reported to be non-random in domestic bovids. The aim of this study was to investigate if milking order is related to T. gondii infection in sheep. The study was performed on 41 ewes milked twice a day. Milking order was noted during 7 consecutive days. The indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) was used to detect antibodies (IgG + IgM) in sera of sheep. Titers ≥8 were considered positive. Moreover, in case of positive sera a test for IgM was conducted. The antibodies to T. gondii were found in 53.65% of the investigated sheep, but IgM were not found in any sheep. Infected sheep entered the milking parlour significantly later (mean position at milking 24.89) than uninfected animals (16.40; r = 0.43, p = 0.006). Results of this study suggest that behaviour of sheep is related to T. gondii infection. However, it is not clear if the phenomenon has any adaptive value for the parasite.     

Hair diameter distribution in sheep interspecies hybrids

Hair diameter distribution was studied in wild sheep species (argali—Ovis ammon, mouflon—O. Musimon; domestic sheep—O. aries) and their hybrids. In wild species and their hybrids, rather distinctly separated subpopulations of thin (underwool) hairs (10–22 μm diameter) and thick (kemp) hairs (85–302 μm) were detected, and intermediate diameters were rare. In domestic sheep, the kemp subpopulation was very poor, not distinctly separated from the underwool, while maximal hair diameter was <150 μm. In wild × domestic crosses, the kemp subpopulation was clearly expressed, shifted to lower diameter range, and maximal diameters was <200 μm. The same restriction was found in two-month-old wild species lambs compared with adults.     

Domestication affects the structure,development and stability of biobehavioural profiles

Domestication is an evolutionary process during which the biobehavioural profile (comprising e.g. social and emotional behaviour, cognitive abilities, as well as hormonal stress responses) is substantially reshaped. Using a comparative approach, and focusing mainly on the domestic and wild guinea pig, an established model system for the study of domestication, we review (a) how wild and domestic animals of the same species differ in behaviour, emotion, cognition, and hormonal stress responses, (b) during which phases of life differences in biobehavioural profiles emerge and (c) whether or not animal personalities exist in both the wild and domestic form. Concerning (a), typical changes with domestication include increased courtship, sociopositive and maternal behaviours as well as decreased aggression and attentive behaviour. In addition, domestic animals display more anxiety-like and less risk-taking and exploratory behaviour than the wild form and they show distinctly lower endocrine stress responsiveness. There are no indications, however, that domestic animals have diminished cognitive abilities relative to the wild form. The different biobehavioural profiles of the wild and domestic animals can be regarded as adaptations to the different environmental conditions under which they live, i.e., the natural habitat and artificial man-made housing conditions, respectively. Concerning (b), the comparison of infantile, adolescent and adult wild and domestic guinea pigs shows that the typical biobehavioural profile of the domestic form is already present during early phases of life, that is, during early adolescence and weaning. Thus, differences between the domestic and the wild form can be attributed to genetic alterations resulting from artificial selection, and likely to environmental influences during the pre- and perinatal phase. Interestingly, the frequency of play behaviour does not differ between the domestic and wild form early in life, but is significantly higher in domesticated guinea pigs at later ages. Concerning (c), there is some evidence that personalities occur in both wild and domestic animals. However, there may be differences in which behavioural domains – social and sexual behaviour, emotionality, stress-responsiveness – are consistent over time. These differences are probably due to changing selection pressures during domestication.     

Elaphostrongylus cervi in a population of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and evidence of cerebrospinal nematodiasis in small ruminants in the province of Varese, Italy

Thirty-one faecal samples were collected from red deer in the northern area of Varese, in the Italian region of Lombardy, between August and October 2008. The animals had either been hunted or accidently killed. Examination for internal parasites showed a prevalence of 45.2% for Elaphostrongylus cervi larvae and species identification was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Ninety-seven faecal samples were also collected from two goat flocks grazing in the same area between December 2007 and May 2008. These showed a prevalence of 74.7% for lungworms. Furthermore, the central nervous systems from five goats and one sheep from this area with a history of neurologically related lameness were examined. Histopathology confirmed E. cervi cerebro-spinal nematodiasis in five cases out of six. This study demonstrates E. cervi transmission from wild to domestic ruminants when the animals graze in the same area, and the possible occurrence of clinical disease in infected goats and sheep associated with high prevalence in deer.     

Generalist nematodes dominate the nemabiome of roe deer in sympatry with sheep at a regional level

The growth of livestock farming and the recent expansion of wild ungulate populations in Europe favor opportunities for direct and/or indirect cross-transmission of pathogens. Comparatively few studies have investigated the epidemiology of gastro-intestinal nematode parasites, an ubiquitous and important community of parasites of ungulates, at the wildlife/livestock interface. In this study, we aimed to assess the influence of livestock proximity on the gastrointestinal nematode community of roe deer in a rural landscape located in southern France. Using ITS-2 rDNA nemabiome metabarcoding on fecal larvae, we analysed the gastrointestinal nematode communities of roe deer and sheep. In addition, we investigated Haemonchus contortus nad4 mtDNA diversity to specifically test parasite circulation among domestic and wild host populations. The dominant gastrointestinal nematode species found in both the roe deer and sheep were generalist species commonly found in small ruminant livestock (e.g. H. contortus), whereas the more specialised wild cervid nematode species (e.g. Ostertagia leptospicularis) were only present at low frequencies. This is in marked contrast with previous studies that found the nemabiomes of wild cervid populations to be dominated by cervid specialist nematode species. In addition, the lack of genetic structure of the nad4 mtDNA of H. contortus populations between host species suggests circulation of gastrointestinal nematodes between roe deer and sheep. The risk of contact with livestock only has a small influence on the nemabiome of roe deer, suggesting the parasite population of roe deer has been displaced by generalist livestock parasites due to many decades of sheep farming, not only for deer grazing close to pastures, but also at a larger regional scale. We also observed some seasonal variation in the nemabiome composition of roe deer. Overall, our results demonstrate significant exchange of gastrointestinal nematodes between domestic and wild ungulates, with generalist species spilling over from domestic ungulates dominating wild cervid parasite communities.     

Microsatellite evolution in congeneric mammals: domestic and bighorn sheep

We compared genotypes at eight (AC)n microsatellite loci in domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and wild Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (O. canadensis). The domestic sheep had greater genetic variation, higher allele-size variances, and larger allele sizes than the wild sheep. Accumulating evidence from higher taxonomic comparisons shows that these parameters are biased if microsatellite loci are selected in one taxon and used in another. Our results demonstrate similar biases between congeneric species. We compared standard measures of genetic variation, differentiation, and distance within and between species (H, D, FST) to newer measures based on allele-size variance (SW, SB, RST). The size-based distances better detected species-level divergence, but standard measures better distinguished allopatric populations. Empirical calibration of these measures at the subspecies level is needed to establish their useful ranges.