Organization of the workers of the State Sanitary and Epidemiologic Services of the Stavropol Territory in the period of eradication of the consequences of the flood in urban and rural regions of the Territory in 2002

As the result of high flood occurring during the period of June 21-22, 2002, in the Stavropol Territory, 65 settlements were affected. About 200,000 inhabitants found themselves lacking centralized drinking water supply. From the very first days of the emergency situation the state sanitary and epidemiological service took a complex of measures aimed at the liquidation of the medico-sanitary consequences of the high flood, the prevention of the appearance of mass infectious diseases among the affected population. As the result of these measures, the appearance of the outbreaks of acute enteric infections, viral hepatitis A aggravations in malaria and other infectious diseases could be prevented.     

Experience in the work on prevention of infectious diseases in the Republic of Dagestan in 2002 in connection with a natural disaster

Materials characterizing the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Republic of Daghestan which arose as the consequence of the emergency situation caused by the high flood and inundation in summer 2002 are presented. The work of the sanitary and epidemiological service, carried out in cooperation with the relevant departments, on the organization and realization of measures aimed at preventing the deterioration of the epidemiological situation on the territories of the republic, affected by the natural calamity, is described. As shown in the presented materials, all these measures made it possible to ensure the effective control on the sanitary, hygienic and epidemiological situation in the republic and to prevent the appearance and spread of the outbreaks of infectious diseases.     

Anti-epidemic provision for the population in emergency situations in the Krasnodar Territory

Information on natural calamities, caused by hydrologically dangerous phenomena (high flood, tornado, mountain torrents) which took place in the Krasnodar Territory in summer 2002) are presented. As the result of the emergency situations 110 settlements with the population exceeding 116,000 inhabitants were inundated. At the peak of the high flood more than 36,000 homesteads were inundated, more than 56,000 persons had to be evacuated. The aggravation of the epidemiological situation in the affected settlements and in the territory as a whole could be prevented due to the timely planning and realization of measures aimed at the sanitary and epidemiological provision of the population of the Krasnodar Territory (the sanitation and disinfection of settlements, the campaign for the immunoprophylaxis of the population with respect of infectious diseases, etc.), unprecedented in their scope.     

Emergency situations in the Republic of Ingushetia and the prevention of their epidemiological consequences

Information on the sanitary and epidemiological situation and water supply in the Republic of Ingushetia during the period before and after the emergency situation (high flood) is presented. The results of epidemiological observations on the territory of the Republic of Ingushetia for the period of June 22 to the end of the year 2002 indicate that no considerable rise in infectious morbidity, as well as outbreaks of natural focal infections, was noted. This suggests that, in spite of the complicated sanitary and epidemiological situation before the emergency situation (due to the vicinity of the conflict in the Chechen Republic, the intensive migration of the population and the presence of a large of refugees on the territory of the Republic of Ingushetia) and its sharp deterioration caused by the high flood, the timely realization of a complex of sanitary and prophylactic measures made it possible to avoid the wide spread of infectious diseases.     

Shigellosis and other acute intestinal infections in the Republic of Tajikistan: the epidemiological patterns

Acute enteric infections (AEI), including shigellosis, are characterized by their extremely wide spread in Tajikistan. Their hyperendemicity is due to a high activity of the water route of transmission under the conditions of hot climate. The morbidity level of AEI both in the republic as a whole and in its individual territories has been found to directly depend on the degree of the potential epidemiological danger of the water supply system, as well as on the quality of water used by the population in the presence of its pronounced deficiency. The important role of breast feeding for the prophylaxis of AEI among young children is shown.     

Prevention of acute enteric infections and viral hepatitis A in the Republic of Adygeia in connection with a natural disaster

Materials indicating the scope of destructions in the systems of life provision of the Republic of Adygeia as the result of the natural calamity (high flood) are presented. The complex of measures, carried out by the sanitary and epidemiological service of the Republic of Adygeia with the aim of the prophylaxis of infectious diseases, is described. As shown in this work, the appearance and spread of quarantine and mass infections, cases of food poisoning and lethal diseases in the inundated territories were prevented due to the coordination of the efforts and means of all republican services, organs and institutions, as well as due to their precise interaction.     

Organizational provision for the sanitary and epidemiological safety of the population in the regions of the Stavropol Territory affected by the flood

Materials on the organizational provision and financing of measures taken with a view to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological safety in the Stavropol Territory in connection with the high flood of 2002 are presented. Due to the joint efforts of sanitary, antiepidemic and medico-prophylactic services of the Territory, administrative organs and institutions, as well as other relevant departments, not only high quality restoration works were carried out and completed in a short time, medical assistance was given to the victims and the appearance of mass infectious diseases prevented, but also the growth social tensions in the affected areas was averted.     

Organization and execution of the use of disinfectants, insecticides and rodenticides in the period of the eradication of the medical and sanitary consequences of a flood in Stavropol Territory in 2002

Materials on the organization and execution of disinfection, disinfestations and deratization works at the period of the liquidation of the medico-sanitary consequences of the high flood in the Stavropol Territory in 2002 are presented. Timely and full-scope treatment, carried out in the course of these works, played a positive role in preventing epidemiological aggravations among the affected population.     

Tick‐borne viruses: Current trends in large‐scale viral surveillance

Ticks are ectoparasites that transmit pathogens, such as tick‐borne viruses, to their hosts. Tick‐borne viruses are diverse: they can be categorized into two orders, nine families, and at least 12 genera. Almost 25% of these viruses are infectious to humans and some are a serious threat to public health. The global rise in tick‐borne virus diseases has been linked to climate change which has reduced tick mortality in the winter and extended their active period. The spread of tick‐borne viral diseases to humans has received significant interest due to the increased threat to human life; epidemiological monitoring of tick‐borne viruses using molecular, immunological, and environmental methods is now a priority. Nevertheless, many tick‐borne diseases remain undiagnosed, which poses a challenge to public administration and health care officials. This review discusses three major tick‐borne RNA viruses that cause serious infection in humans: severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) virus, tick‐borne encephalitis (TBE), and Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus. Specifically, we discuss the epidemiological monitoring, vector control measures, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and environmental determinants related to these viruses. Furthermore, we review the current surveillance of these tick‐borne viruses with a specific focus on diagnostic approaches that employ molecular interventions such as viral nucleic acid isolation, PCR‐based diagnostics, and high‐throughput sequencing technologies.     

Characteristic of the etiologic structure of acute enteric infections in adults based on the data from infectious diseases hospital

Study of the etiologic spectrum of sporadic cases of causative agents of acute enteric infections (AEI) in 753 patients aged 15-85 years old using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in the infectious diseases hospital during 12 months. It was shown that detection of the causative agents of AEI by PCR was 2.2 times more effective than routine microbiologic diagnostics supplemented with test of feces on rotavirus by ELISA method and allowed to detect etiologic agent in 54.3% of the patients. Viral etiology of AEI was determined in 22.6% of the patients. The most significant causative agents of AEI comparable on the rate of detection with salmonella and shigella were genotype 2 noroviruses and group A rotaviruses which were isolated in 10.4 and 8.9% of the patients respectively. Seasonal change of dominating viral pathogens causing diarrheal diseases was noted: predominance of group A rotaviruses during winter-spring period, noroviruses--during spring-summer months, and astroviruses--during fall and in the beginning of winter.     

Hydrological dangerous natural phenomena as cause of aggravation of an epidemiological situation

Materials dealing with the specific features of the territory of Southern Russia, appearing as a consequence of natural, technogenic and some other factors, are presented. These materials indicate that, due to the high flood in summer of 2002, a real danger of a sharp aggravation of the epidemiological situation in acute enteric infections, as well as other infections, arose on a vast territory. As the result of the timely evaluation and analysis of changes in the factors of the natural and social environment, occurring as the consequence of the high flood, prophylactic measures were urgently carried out, thus making it possible to prevent the aggravation of the epidemiological situation.     

Bacteriological provision of anti-epidemic measures in the zones of a natural disaster in Southern Russia in 2002

The bacteriological provision of the prophylactic and anti-epidemic measures, taken under the conditions of the unstable sanitary and epidemiological situation which arose as the result of the emergency situation due to the high flood in the Southern Federal District, was carried out by the efforts and means of microbiological laboratories forming a part of the territorial system of observation and laboratory control. On the whole, more than 20,000 samples of water supplied to the population for drinking and household use, more than 10,000 samples of foodstuffs and cooking raw materials were examined in the Southern Federal District during the period of the liquidation of the medico-sanitary consequences of the emergency situation (June-August). To study the epidemic potential of the natural foci of quarantine infections and the probability of the spread of Bacillus anthracis from burial grounds for sick animals, the laboratory capacities of plague-control institutions were used.     

Prevention of acute enteric infections and viral hepatitis A in a period of an emergency situation on the territory of the Karachai-Chercasssian Republic

Information on the scope of destructions caused by the high flood, on the sanitary and hygienic situation on the affected territories of the Karachai-Chercassian Republic is given. Materials on the organization and realization of prophylactic measures on the territory of the Karachai-Chercassian Republic at the period the natural calamity, under the conditions of a high risk of the appearance of an outbreak of enteric infections and viral hepatitis A are presented. In these materials the main trends of the work are pointed out; due to the timely taken and effectively carried out measures on the anti-epidemic protection of the population, the sanitary and epidemiological service was shown to prevent the aggravation of the epidemiological situation in the republic.     

Basic measures for prevention of the epidemiological consequences of a natural disaster in the North Caucasus in 2002

The system of organizational and prophylactic measures, carried out with a view to prevent epidemiological aggravations in connection with the natural calamity in the Southern Federal District of the Russian Federation in 2003, is described. Proposals on the improvement of the system of preventive measures, including the monitoring of the epidemiological, sanitary and hygienic situation, personnel training, technical provision, the cooperation of different services and departments, capable of ensuring the liquidation of the consequences of emergency situations of the natural character, are made.     

Prevention of epidemiological consequences during an extreme situation caused by the natural disaster in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania

Information on the organization of interaction between different services responsible for restoration works, sanitary cleaning, disinfection under the conditions of the emergency situation is presented. The activity of the sanitary and epidemiological services in the areas in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, affected by high flood, is described. Measures aimed at the epidemiological surveillance of acute enteric infections, the control of the quality of drinking water and foodstuffs, the bacteriological study of material samples taken from humans, vaccinal and phage prophylaxis have taken an important place in the work of the institutions of sanitary and epidemiological surveillance. As the result of all these measures the sanitary and epidemiological service has managed to prevent the aggravation of the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the republic.     

Realization of antimalarial measures in the period of eradication of the consequences of a flood in the Stavropol Territory in 2002

As the result of the high flood, an increase in the area of anopheligenic water reservoirs occurred on the inundated territories, which created favorable conditions for the proliferation of Anopheles mosquitoes, the vectors of malarial plasmodia, thus creating the threat of the formation of the local sources of malaria in case of its penetration from other regions unfavorable with respect to this disease. In the affected towns and regions hydrotechnical measures aimed at decreasing the surface of anopheligenic water reservoirs, as well as measures aimed at the decrease in the number of the larval and imaginal stages in the development of mosquitoes, were taken, which made it possible to prevent the probable epidemiological aggravations in malaria.     

Prevention of acute enteric infections and viral hepatitis A in the Republic of Dagestan in connection with the flood of 2002

The data on the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Republic of Daghestan during the period of high flood in 2002. The scope of sanitary, hygienic and prophylactic measures carried out during this period with a view to prevent the appearance of the outbreaks of acute enteric infections and viral hepatitis A in the Republic of Daghestan is shown.     

Prevention of acute enteric infections and viral hepatitis A in the Krasnodar Territory appearing in connection with a natural disaster in 2002

Materials on the sanitary and epidemiological situation in the Krasnodar Territory in connection with emergency situations (intensive snowfalls, heavy showers, high floods) in 2002 are presented. The scope of the destruction of the systems ensuring the life provision of the population in the affected regions of the territory is shown. To carry out the epidemiological surveillance on acute enteric infections, to make corrections of the planned prophylactic measures, as well as the timely solutions of problems connected with controlling the epidemiological situation, the daily monitoring of the level and dynamics of infectious morbidity in individual settlements among different age and professional groups, as well as the foci of infections, was established. 65 cases of acute enteric infection and 4 cases of viral hepatitis A were registered in the affected areas, which did not exceed the average morbidity figures for many years. A complex of sanitary, hygienic and prophylactic measures was carried out by the sanitary and epidemiological service of the territory, which made it possible to maintain human morbidity in acute enteric infections and viral hepatitis A in the affected areas on the sporadic level.     

Adverse environmental impact: 30-year search for a definition

Since passage of the Clean Water Act in 1972, there has been a long, unresolved struggle to define a key phrase in Section 316(b) of the act: "adverse environmental impact" (AEI). Section 316(b) requires that the best technology available be used in cooling-water intake structures to minimize AEI due to entrainment and impingement of aquatic organisms. Various attempts were made to evaluate and define AEI, including focused national conferences on impact assessment. Unresolved arguments regarding AEI were reinvigorated following the 1995 Consent Decree requiring EPA to propose new rules to implement Section 316(b). This article reviews and compares eight proposed definitions of AEI. Six of the definitions define AEI as impact expressed at the population or higher level of biological organization. The two remaining definitions are unrelated to populations: a 1% cropping of the near-field organisms and "one fish equals AEI". The latter definition is based on the desire of some stakeholders to define AEI as the loss of any public trust resources. Equating loss of public trust resources with AEI hampers consensus on a definition because a societal-based policy concept (public trust resources) is commingled with science-based definitions based on population effects. We recommend that a population-based definition of AEI be incorporated into Section 316(b) guidance and observe that this will not preclude a state from exercising its law and policy to protect public trust resources.