Assessing the Welfare of Dairy Cattle

This article attempts to determine the effects of environment (captive or wild) and a simple form of environmental enrichment on the behavior and physiology of a nonhuman animal. Specifically, analyses first compared behavioral budgets and stereotypic behavior of captive coyotes (Canis latrans) in kennels and pens to their counterparts in the wild. Second, experiments examined the effect of a simple form of environmental enrichment for captive coyotes (food-filled bones) on behavioral budgets, stereotypies, and corticosteroid levels. Overall, behavioral budgets of captive coyotes in both kennels and pens were similar to those observed in the wild, but coyotes in captivity exhibited significantly more stereotypic behavior. Intermittently providing a bone generally lowered resting and increased foraging behaviors but did not significantly reduce stereotypic behavior or alter corticosteroid levels. Thus, coyote behavior in captivity can be similar to that exhibited in the wild; in addition, although enrichment can affect proportions of elicited behaviors, abnormal behaviors and corticosteroid levels may require more than a simple form of environmental enrichment for their reduction.     

Role of cell death in the formation of sexual dimorphism in the Drosophila central nervous system

Currently, sex differences in behavior are believed to result from sexually dimorphic neural circuits in the central nervous system (CNS). Drosophila melanogaster is a common model organism for studying the relationship between brain structure, behavior, and genes. Recent studies of sex‐specific reproductive behaviors in D. melanogaster have addressed the contribution of sexual differences in the CNS to the control of sex‐specific behaviors and the development of sexual dimorphism. For example, sexually dimorphic regions of the CNS are involved in the initiation of male courtship behavior, the generation of the courtship song, and the induction of male‐specific muscles in D. melanogaster. In this review, I discuss recent findings about the contribution of cell death to the formation of sexually dimorphic neural circuitry and the regulation of sex‐specific cell death by two sex determination factors, Fruitless and Doublesex, in Drosophila.     

Contributions to the theory of imitative behavior: The number of political parties as determined by biological and social factors

The theory of imitative behavior as applied tow mutually exclusive behavior patterns (N. Rashevsky,Mathematical Biology of Social Behavior, Rev. Ed., 1959; The University of Chicago Press) leads to the possibility of any numberw of different behavior patterns existing in a social group. Mutually inhibitory effects suppress the effectiveness of behavior of groups that are very small numerically. The manner in which the different biological and social parameters that enter into the theory of imitative behavior determine the number of different effective behaviors is discussed. The results are applied to the problem of what determines the number of political parties in different countries. This number is expected to increase with increasing spread of the distribution curves for the tendencies towards different behaviors, with decreasing imitation factors, and with increasing instability of psychophysical judgments of the average individuals.     

Effects of the Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Fluoxetine on Social Behaviors in Male and Female Prairie Voles (Microtus ochrogaster)

The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine modifies social behavior in a number of species, including humans. Because the neural substrates for social behavior in prairie voles are sexually dimorphic, we tested whether the effects of fluoxetine on these behaviors differ by sex. Parental and pair-bonded voles were chronically treated with fluoxetine or saline and subsequently tested for parental responsiveness. Fluoxetine-treated animals displayed a longer latency to exhibit parental responsiveness than did saline-treated controls (p< 0.02), but they did not differ in other aspects of parental care. There were no sex differences in the effects of fluoxetine on parental behavior. After completion of the tests for parental behavior, the subjects were tested for aggressive behavior using the resident–intruder paradigm. Fluoxetine-treated males displayed less aggressive behavior than their saline-treated counterparts (p< 0.02). Although we did not find any effects of fluoxetine on aggressive behavior in females, no significant interaction was found between sex and treatment. Fluoxetine did not alter nonsocial behaviors. The findings suggest that serotonin influences social behavior in prairie voles.     

Testing the Effects of Biogenic Amines and Alternative Topical Solvent Types on the Behavioral Repertoire of Two Web‐Building Spiders

Investigating the proximate mechanism underlying behavior has long been a primary goal of ethologists. With the recent focus on behavioral correlations (e.g., behavioral syndromes), a fundamental question arises regarding what mechanisms may drive positive relationships between functionally distinct behaviors. Understanding these mechanisms can inform critical questions, such as why distinct behaviors are often correlated, and can also lend insights into how behavioral similarities are conserved across species. Arthropods provide an idea system to study these questions as the biogenic amines, such as octopamine and serotonin, have long been known to mediate a large number of behaviors such as aggression, dominance, escape behavior, and others. Behaviorists have several ways in which they can manipulate these biogenic amines in vivo, including injection, feeding, and topical application. Topical application is potentially an optimal method for manipulating amine concentrations, given that it is minimally invasive and relatively precise. Here, we investigate the role of biogenic amines, octopamine, and serotonin, in mediating a range of similar and often correlated behaviors in two distantly related species of spiders, the western black widow, Latrodectus hesperus, and the funnel‐web spider, Agelenopsis pennsylvanica. Additionally, we investigate the behavioral effects associated with three commonly used carrier solvents: dimethylformamide (DMF), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and acetone. We demonstrate that biogenic amines are involved both in mediating several behaviors, and also potentially the links between different behaviors. We also show that the same behaviors in different species are not affected by biogenic amines in the same manner, suggesting differences in the underlying neurophysiological mechanisms governing behavior. Furthermore, we discovered large and pervasive effects associated with both carrier solvents, thus calling into question the potential usefulness and interpretability of topical application methods in behavioral research.     

Coppery titi monkey (Plecturocebus cupreus) pairs display coordinated behaviors in response to a simulated intruder

Mate guarding and coordinated behaviors between partners are important for the maintenance of monogamous pair bonds. To study the effects of a perceived unfamiliar social intruder on females' behavior, we used coppery titi monkeys (Plecturocebus cupreus). We examined the effects of male aggressive temperament on females' behavior and the effects of each behavior performed by the male on the same female behavior. Using a mirror, we simulated a social intruder in the home territory and scored behaviors using an established ethogram. Based on our analysis of self-directed behaviors, females do not recognize themselves in the mirror. We then used general linear mixed models to predict percent change in females' behaviors as a function of (a) males' temperament, (b) males' behavior, and (c) an interaction between males' temperament and behavior. Male temperament did not significantly predict female behavior for any of our best fitting models. For percent change in female lip-smacking, male lip-smacking significantly predicted female lip-smacking (β = 0.74, SE = 0.22, t = 3.39; p = .004). There was a positive correlation between male and female agonistic behaviors such as back-arching/tail-lashing (β = 0.51, SE = 0.23, t = 2.22; p = .04) and for anxiety-related behaviors such as leaving the partner (β = 0.50, SE = 0.19, t = 2.68; p = .015), locomotion duration (β = 0.19, SE = 0.06, t = 2.98; p = .02), and locomotion frequency (β = 0.71, SE = 0.14, t = 5.17; p < .001). These findings on coordination of pair-mate behaviors may explain how titi monkeys display pair bond strength and ensure their reproductive success.     

Serotonin and octopamine elicit stereotypical agonistic behaviors in the squat lobster Munida quadrispina (Anomura, Galatheidae)

Serotonin and octopamine have been implicated as modulators of posture and behavior in several crustaceans. Here we characterize the agonistic behaviors of normally interacting squat lobsters Munida quadrispina (Anomura, Galatheidae) and their responses to serotonin and octopamine injected into the ventral hemolymph sinus, in order to evaluate the potential roles of these amines in modulating agonistic behaviors. Normally interacting M. quadrispina do not develop lasting dominance hierarchies, although transient aggressive and submissive displays do occur. Injected serotonin elicits postures and behaviors in isolated individuals similar to those typical of aggressive, normally interacting animals. Injected octopamine can produce postures and behaviors typical of submissive animals, and elicits behaviors which imply a modulatory role for octopamine in tailflipping. The effects of both amines are reversible and dose dependent, and the dose-response curves parallel the normal progression of agonistic interactions. The social behaviors and reactions to injected serotonin and octopamine of M. quadrispina differ from those of lobsters and crayfish, indicating that interspecific differences in neuromodulation of behavior and motor output exist. Such differences have implications for the understanding of aminergic modulation of aggression and the evolution of aminergic modulation in crustaceans. Accepted: 22 June 1997     

Beyond immunity: quantifying the effects of host anti-parasite behavior on parasite transmission

A host’s first line of defense in response to the threat of parasitic infection is behavior, yet the efficacy of anti-parasite behaviors in reducing infection are rarely quantified relative to immunological defense mechanisms. Larval amphibians developing in aquatic habitats are at risk of infection from a diverse assemblage of pathogens, some of which cause substantial morbidity and mortality, suggesting that behavioral avoidance and resistance could be significant defensive strategies. To quantify the importance of anti-parasite behaviors in reducing infection, we exposed larval Pacific chorus frogs (Pseudacris regilla) to pathogenic trematodes (Ribeiroia and Echinostoma) in one of two experimental conditions: behaviorally active (unmanipulated) or behaviorally impaired (anesthetized). By quantifying both the number of successful and unsuccessful parasites, we show that host behavior reduces infection prevalence and intensity for both parasites. Anesthetized hosts were 20–39% more likely to become infected and, when infected, supported 2.8-fold more parasitic cysts. Echinostoma had a 60% lower infection success relative to the more deadly Ribeiroia and was also more vulnerable to behaviorally mediated reductions in transmission. For Ribeiroia, increases in host mass enhanced infection success, consistent with epidemiological theory, but this relationship was eroded among active hosts. Our results underscore the importance of host behavior in mitigating disease risk and suggest that, in some systems, anti-parasite behaviors can be as or more effective than immune-mediated defenses in reducing infection. Considering the severe pathologies induced by these and other pathogens of amphibians, we emphasize the value of a broader understanding of anti-parasite behaviors and how co-occurring stressors affect them.     

Some remarks on the mathematical bio-sociology of the relativity of injustice

The author's theory of the adoption of certain types of behavior patterns (Rashevsky, N., 1957, “Contributions to the Theory Initiative Behavior”.Bull. Maths. Biophysics,19, 91–119; 1968,Looking at History through Mathematics, Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press) consisting of elementary behaviors for each of which there is an opposite one and the two are mutually exclusive, is applied to describe the changes in the general type of behavior of a society. The elementary acts of which the whole problem consists may be either overt activities or beliefs or opinions. The general behavior patternsadopted by the society are considered as the “proper” or “just” ones. Any deviation from it in either one or more of the component elementary behaviors is considered as “unjust” and is subject to some punitive action. The total number of possible mutually exclusive behavior patterns is very large but finite. Within this very large range of possible patterns, we find that this notion of justice is relative, because changes from any behavior pattern to any other may occur. It is further shown that the amount of punishment for the deviation from the accepted pattern in order to be effective as well as efficient must be applied in different ways to different individuals even for the same transgression.     

From fruitless to sex: On the generation and diversification of an innate behavior

Male sexual behavior in Drosophila melanogaster, largely controlled by the fruitless (fru) gene encoding the male specific Fru^M protein, is among the best studied animal behaviors. Although substantial studies suggest that Fru^M specifies a neuronal circuitry governing all aspects of male sexual behaviors, recent findings show that Fru^M is not absolutely necessary for such behaviors. We propose that another regulatory gene doublesex encoding the male-specific Dsx^M protein builds a core neuronal circuitry that possesses the potential for courtship, which could be either induced through adult social experience or innately manifested during development by Fru^M expression in a broader neuronal circuitry. Fru^M expression levels and patterns determine the modes of courtship behavior from innate heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, to learned courtship. We discuss how Fru^M expression is regulated by hormones and social experiences and tunes functional flexibility of the sex circuitry. We propose that regulatory genes hierarchically build the potential for innate and learned aspects of courtship behaviors, and expression changes of these regulatory genes among different individuals and species with different social experiences ultimately lead to behavioral diversification.     

Classifying and inferring behaviors using real‐time acceleration biotelemetry in reproductive steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Movement behaviors are central to ecology and conservation. Movement sensing technologies can monitor behaviors that are otherwise difficult to observe under field conditions and may enhance the ability to quantify behaviors at the population scale. We monitored steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) spawning behaviors in a seminatural enclosure using accelerometer telemetry tags while simultaneously observing behaviors with underwater cameras. Behavioral assignments from visual observations were compared to acceleration histories to develop assignment criteria for acceleration data, including for a key behavior (oviposition). Behavioral events independently classified using acceleration data prior to reviewing video were compared to video scoring and 97% of holding behaviors, 93% of digging behaviors, and 86% of oviposition/covering behaviors were correctly assigned using acceleration data alone. We applied the method to at‐liberty steelhead in spawning tributaries. Acceleration records revealed putative spawning and oviposition in at‐liberty female steelhead, and time budgets for at‐liberty steelhead were similar to those monitored within enclosures. The use of similar movement sensing tags and classification approaches offers a method for monitoring movement behavior, activity budgets, and habitat use in a broad array of aquatic and terrestrial taxa, and may be especially useful when behaviors are cryptic.     

Crevice spawning behavior in Dionda dichroma,with comments on the evolution of spawning modes in North American shiners (Teleostei: Cyprinidae)

The crevice spawning behavior of Diondadichroma is described for the first time, andcompared to spawning behavior in the genusCyprinella. The evolution of crevice spawningwith respect to other spawning behaviors ofNorth American shiners is examined usingexplicitly phylogenetic hypotheses for thisgroup. We present evidence that broadcastspawning is plesiomorphic and all otherspawning behaviors are independently derived. There is evidence that crevice spawning hasevolved independently at least three timeswithin the shiner clade. There is no supportfor an evolutionary transition between eggclustering and crevice spawning. Nestassociation, spawning on habitat prepared byother species, has also evolved multiple timeswithin this clade. Evolution of spawning inshiners is best described by phylogeneticstasis with several independent origins ofspecialized spawning stragegies.     

Courtship and Mating in the Giant Hairy Desert Scorpion, Hadrurus arizonensis (Scorpionida, Iuridae)

Hadrurus arizonensis is a large, long-lived species of North American desert scorpion with lengthy, stereotyped courtship behaviors that lead to sperm transfer via an external spermatophore. Courtship and mating behaviors in H. arizonensis and other members of the Iuridae family have not been described. H. arizonensis has reproductive behavior similar to that of other scorpions, including the promenade a deux, but with some unique components described here for the first time. Courtship and mating behaviors of H. arizonensis are presented in a flowchart to emphasize its stereotypical nature and suitability for experimental manipulation in field and laboratory studies.     

Neuroplasticity and temporal retardation of development (paedomorphic morphology) inhuman evolution: A consideration of biological requirements for the plasticity of human cognition and the potential acquisition of culturally dependent ethical world views

The fact thatHomo sapiens have one of the longest childhoods in the animal kingdom is a most significant factor when considering the biological requirements for cultural evolution. The so-called long childhood is necessary for the intergenerational transmission of learned skills and behaviors that defined culture. It is important to distinguish between behavior motivated byinstinct and behavior that islearned as a result of having been reared in a culturally dependent environment. Our neotenic development occasions an ability to learn a variety of culturally dependent behaviors. Since we are born, quite literally, as human embryos, we must recognize that our brain undergoes the bulk of its development post-natally. It is significant that at the same time the brain develops its distinctive axon-neuron network structure, persons are learning culturally dependent accepted patterns of behavior that are related to (amongst many other things) language, altruism, aggression, rites, filial, proprieties, etc. The old reductionistic nature-nurture issue is best understood as a complex array of developmental processes in which environmental stimuli (nurture) may affect the physiological development (nature) of the brain. The early plasticity of human cognition may be, to a significant degree, shaped and physiologically constrained by environmental factors (especially in the early years of development). The presence of a diversity of environmental influences the world over suggests the possibility that a person's intolerance of foreign ethical belief systems may stem from a genuine inability to conceive of ethical relationships in a manner far removed from one's daily life and native environment. After consideration of the effects of neuroplasticity and human neotenic development, it is argued that a viable sociobiological research agenda must study not only those ethical behaviors that seem to beshared across cultures, but also those behaviors that stem from culturally distinctive attitudes that arenot shared across cultural boundaries.     

Factors affecting the behavior of captive white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) and the accuracy of ad-hoc keeper data

Although white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) are common in captivity, few behavioral studies have been conducted and there is seemingly no research for immersive exhibits where potential for visitor effects is high. Moreover, little information exists on possible effects of weather and temperature on rhino outside their native range. Here we analyze 14,501 observations of rhino in a drive-through enclosure. Data were collected by researchers (n = 12,160 datapoints) and keepers (n = 2341 datapoints) over a 4-month period. We aimed to: (1) quantify behavior using detailed researcher-collected data and contemporaneous but ad hoc keeper-collected data; (2) compare datasets statistically; (3) establish effects of visitors, temperature, and weather on behavior; and (4) assess the influence of visitors on similarity of researcher/keeper datasets. Activity budgets were similar to the wild and the single previous study from a traditional (nondrive-through) enclosure. There was some discrepancy in activity budgets between researcher and keeper data due to significant differences in recorded frequency of two rare behaviors (horn rub; social interaction) and two behaviors that could be easily confused (grazing vs. standing with head-down): recording of other behaviors matched well. Weather and temperature affected behavior, with rhino becoming more sedentary (−locomotion, grazing; +resting, standing, and sedentary eating of hay) on hot/sunny days compared to cool/wet days. The number of visitor vehicles had a fairly negligible effect but resting was lower on busy days, possibly as vigilance increased. The match between researcher/keeper datasets was lowest when visitor numbers were high, suggesting visitors might affect keeper ability to accurately record behavior.     

The effects of induced masculinization on reproductive and aggressive behaviors of the female mosquitofish,Gambusia affinis affinis

Synopsis FemaleGambusia affinis affinis were masculinized with the degraded products of 65% stigmastanol-30% B-sitosterol, a phytosterol. The masculinized females were paired with non-treated males, non-treated females, and other masculinized females. The pairs were analyzed for reproductive and aggressive behaviors exhibited. The behavioral patterns of these pairs were compared statistically to the behavior patterns of the following non-treated pairs: male with male, female with female, and male with female. The masculinized females behaved like males in that they followed, swung, and thrust their gonopodia at non-treated females and larger masculinized females. However, the male-like behavior of the masculinized females was not as intense as that of normal males. Also, the effect of masculinization on the behavior of the treated female was context-dependent as seen when placed with a male or a smaller masculinized female. Under these conditions the masculinized females behaved like typical females and exhibited no masculinized behaviors. The effects of anal spots and size differences are discussed as possible explanations for the variability in behaviors exhibited. The masculinized females displayed no change in aggressive behaviors.     

Abnormal behaviors,with a special focus on rocking,and reproductive competence in a large sample of captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) are endangered in the wild and may no longer be imported into the United States. Of those animals presently in captivity, candidates for breeding programs must be identified to insure a self-sustaining captive population. Some have suggested that poor reproductive performance might be linked to the performance of abnormal behaviors. In Study 1, three institutions housing breeding colonies of chimpanzees (86 males, 103 females) surveyed their animals for abnormal behaviors, copulatory performance, and, for females, maternal competence. In neither sex was there a positive association between absence of copulation and the presence of any of 18 forms of abnormal behavior. No one abnormal behavior was positively associated with inadequate maternal performance. Contrary to expectations, in both sexes (significantly for females), copulators exhibited more forms of abnormal behaviors than did noncopulators. In contrast, good mothers did show slightly fewer different forms of abnormal behaviors than did inadequate mothers. No specific combination of abnormal behaviors was associated with lack of copulatory performance in either sex or with inadequacy of maternal behavior. Significant sex differences occurred only in 2 of the 18 abnormal behaviors (coprophagy and self-clinging), both with females showing the higher prevalence. In Study 2, the rate of rocking in 5 male and 14 female chimpanzees at the Primate Foundation of Arizona was found to be relatively high among some reproductively competent subjects. Some rocking had forms and contexts indicative of aggressive displays. We conclude that chimpanzees should not be disregarded as potential breeders or as candidates for resocialization and breeding programs solely because they exhibit abnormal behaviors. Anyone involved in assessing well-being needs to be aware of individual differences among animals in the stimuli that may elicit rocking behavior. If they are strangers, they may elicit display rocking which does not indicate a lack of well-being. © 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.