Localization and effects of orexin on fasting motility in the rat duodenum

The orexins [orexin A (OXA) and orexin B (OXB)] are novel neuropeptides that increase food intake in rodents. The aim of this study was to determine the distribution of orexin and orexin receptors (OX1R and OX2R) in the rat duodenum and examine the effects of intravenous orexin on fasting gut motility. OXA-like immunoreactivity was found in varicose nerve fibers in myenteric and submucosal ganglia, the circular muscle, the mucosa, submucosal and myenteric neurons, and numerous endocrine cells of the mucosa. OXA neurons displayed choline acetyltransferase immunoreactivity, and a subset contained vasoactive intestinal peptide. OXA-containing endocrine cells were identified as enterochromaffin (EC) cells based on the presence of 5-hydroxytryptamine immunoreactivity. OX1R was expressed by neural elements of the gut, and EC cells expressed OX2R. OXA at 100 and 500 pmol x kg(-1) x min(-1) significantly increased the myoelectric motor complex (MMC) cycle length compared with saline. Similarly, OXB increased the MMC cycle length at 100 pmol x kg(-1) x min(-1), but there was no further effect at 500 pmol x kg(-1) x min(-1). We postulate that orexins may affect the MMC through actions on enteric neurotransmission after being released from EC cells and/or enteric neurons.     

Hypothalamic orexin--a neurons are involved in the response of the brain stress system to morphine withdrawal

Both the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the extrahypothalamic brain stress system are key elements of the neural circuitry that regulates the negative states during abstinence from chronic drug exposure. Orexins have recently been hypothesized to modulate the extended amygdala and to contribute to the negative emotional state associated with dependence. This study examined the impact of chronic morphine and withdrawal on the lateral hypothalamic (LH) orexin A (OXA) gene expression and activity as well as OXA involvement in the brain stress response to morphine abstinence. Male Wistar rats received chronic morphine followed by naloxone to precipitate withdrawal. The selective OX1R antagonist SB334867 was used to examine whether orexins' activity is related to somatic symptoms of opiate withdrawal and alterations in HPA axis and extended amygdala in rats dependent on morphine. OXA mRNA was induced in the hypothalamus during morphine withdrawal, which was accompanied by activation of OXA neurons in the LH. Importantly, SB334867 attenuated the somatic symptoms of withdrawal, and reduced morphine withdrawal-induced c-Fos expression in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell, bed nucleus of stria terminalis, central amygdala and hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus, but did not modify the HPA axis activity. These results highlight a critical role of OXA signalling, via OX1R, in activation of brain stress system to morphine withdrawal and suggest that all orexinergic subpopulations in the lateral hypothalamic area contribute in this response.     

The effect of the estrous cycle on the expression of prepro-orexin gene and protein and the levels of orexin A and B in the porcine pituitary

Hypothalamic peptides orexin A (OXA) and orexin B (OXB) are derived from the proteolytic cleavage of a common precursor molecule, prepro-orexin (PPO). They act via two orexin receptors (OX1R and OX2R), which belong to the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily. Orexins are implicated in the regulation of arousal states, energy homeostasis and reproductive neuroendocrine function. The objective of this study was to investigate the presence and changes in orexin expression in the porcine pituitary during the estrous cycle. Adenohypophysis (AP) and neurohypophysis (NP) tissue samples were harvested on days 2 to 3, 10 to 12, 14 to 16, and 17 to 19 of the estrous cycle. The expression of the PPO gene increased in AP and NP during the estrous cycle. The highest PPO protein concentrations in AP were reported on days 2 to 3 (P<0.05), and in NP – on days 10 to 12 and 17 to 19 (P<0.05). The expression of PPO mRNA was lower in AP than in NP, but PPO protein levels were higher in AP. In AP, OXA immunoreactivity was higher (P<0.05) on days 10 to 12 and 14 to 16. In NP, the highest (P<0.05) content of the analyzed protein was observed on days 10 to 12 and the lowest (P<0.05) – on days 14 to 16 and 17 to 19. OXB immunoreactivity in AP reached the highest level (P<0.05) on days 2 to 3, and the lowest level (P<0.05) was determined on days 10 to 12 and 17 to 19. OXB protein concentrations in NP peaked (P<0.05) on days 10 to 12 of the cycle. Our study was the first experiment to demonstrate the expression of the orexin gene and orexin proteins in the porcine pituitary and the correlations between expression levels and the phase of the estrous cycle.     

The in vitro effect of progesterone on the orexin system in porcine uterine tissues during early pregnancy

Background

Orexin A (OXA) and orexin B (OXB) are hypothalamic-derived peptides that participate in the regulation of energy metabolism, food intake and reproductive function by influencing the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. Orexins are also produced in the endometrium, myometrium and placenta, which suggests that they could act as a link between energy metabolism and the reproductive system. Changes in the expression of orexin and the orexin receptor genes and proteins during the oestrous cycle and early gestation in pigs imply that orexin activity may be regulated by local factors within the uterus. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of progesterone (P₄) on the expression of orexin system genes, and proteins in the porcine uterus during early gestation. Gene expression was analyzed by real-time PCR. Adiponectin secretion was determined by ELISA, and the receptors proteins content was defined using western blot analysis.

Results

In the endometrium, P₄ enhanced OXA secretion on days 10 to 11 of gestation and OXB secretion on days 12 to 13. In the myometrium, P₄ inhibited the secretion of both orexins on days 15 to 16 and OXB secretion also on days 12 to 13. In the endometrium, P₄ inhibited the expression of orexin receptor 1 (OX1R) protein at nearly all times analyzed, whereas the expression of orexin receptor 2 (OX2R) protein was inhibited only on days 15 to 16 of gestation. In the myometrium, P₄ stimulated OX1R protein expression on days 12 to 13 and 15 to 16 of gestation and inhibited OX1R protein expression on days 27 to 28. The expression of OX2R protein in the myometrium increased on days 12 to 13 and decreased on days 10 to 11 and 15 to 16.

Conclusions

The results indicate that P₄ could regulate the expression of the orexin system in the porcine uterus during early pregnancy, which suggests the presence of a local feedback loop that could play an important role in the regulation of maternal metabolism during pregnancy. The findings may contribute to the existing knowledge of the mechanisms linking maternal energy metabolism with the regulation of the reproductive system during pregnancy.

     

Effects of orexins A and B on expression of orexin receptors and progesterone release in luteal and granulosa ovarian cells

Orexin-A and orexin-B are neuropeptides controlling sleep-wakefulness, feeding and neuroendocrine functions via their G protein-coupled receptors, orexin-1R and orexin-2R. They are synthesized in the lateral hypothalamus and project throughout the brain. Orexins and orexin receptors have also been described outside the brain. Previously we demonstrated the presence of both receptors in the ovary, their increased expression during proestrous afternoon and the dependence on the gonadotropins. Here we studied the effects of orexins on the mRNA expression of both receptors, by quantitative real-time PCR, on luteal cells from superovulated rat ovaries and granulosa cells from diethylstilbestrol-treated rat ovaries. Effects on progesterone secretion were also measured. In luteal cells, 1nM of either orexin-A or orexin-B decreased progesterone secretion. Orexin-A treatment increased expression of both orexin-1R and orexin-2R mRNA. The effect on orexin-1R mRNA expression was abolished by an orexin-1R selective receptor antagonist SB-334867 and the effect on orexin-2R mRNA expression was abolished by a selective orexin-2R antagonist JNJ-10397049. Orexin-B did not modify orexin-1R mRNA expression, but increased orexin-2R mRNA expression. The effect of orexin-B on orexin-2R was abolished by a selective orexin-2R antagonist. Neither the expression of orexin receptors nor progesterone secretions by granulosa cells were affected by orexins. FSH, as positive control, increased both steroid hormones secretion, but did not induce the expression of OX receptors in granulosa cells isolated from late preantral/early antral follicles. Finally in ovaries obtained immediately after sacrifice, the expression of orexin-1R and orexin-2R was higher in superovulated rat ovaries compared to control or diethylstilbestrol treated rat ovaries. A selective presence and function of both orexinergic receptors in luteal and granulosa cells is described, suggesting that the orexinergic system may have a functional role in the ovary.     

Tissue-specific expression in the salivary glands of transgenic mice.

Using a DNA construct, named Lama, derived from the murine parotid secretory protein (PSP) gene, we have obtained salivary gland specific gene expression in transgenic mice. Lama is a PSP minigene and allows analysis of the PSP gene 5' regulatory region by transgenesis. We show here that the regulatory region included in Lama with 4.6 kb of 5' flanking sequence is sufficient to direct expression specifically to the salivary glands. The expression level in the parotid gland is only about one percent of the PSP mRNA level, while that of the sublingual gland is near the PSP mRNA level. This suggests significant differences in the PSP gene regulation in the two glands. In addition, Lama is a secretory expression vector in which cDNAs or genomic fragments can be inserted. We demonstrate that the Lama construct can direct the expression of a heterologous cDNA encoding the C-terminal peptide of human factor VIII to salivary glands and that the corresponding peptide is secreted into saliva.     

Expression of orexin receptors in the brain and peripheral tissues of the male sheep

Orexins exert their effects through two specific receptors (OX1R and OX2R) that have been found mainly in the brain and also in peripheral tissues of rats and humans. Here, we demonstrate expression of mRNA encoding for ovine OX1R and OX2R in central and peripheral tissues of sheep. Gene expression for orexin receptors in the hypothalamus and the preoptic area was localised by in situ hybridisation. OX1R was detected in arcuate nuclei (ARC), median eminence (ME), the lateral hypothalamic nuclei and preoptic area (POA) and it was scattered along the third ventricle from the paraventricular (PVN) to the ventromedial hypothalamic nuclei (VMH). OX2R was localised in the PVN, ARC, ME, ventral VMH and a small region of the ventral POA. Gene expression for OX1R and OX2R in central and peripheral tissues was analysed using quantitative real time RT-PCR. Both orexin receptor genes were expressed in the hypothalamus, POA, hippocampus, amygdala, olfactory bulb, pineal gland and recess and pituitary gland, whereas only OX1R mRNA was detected in the testis, kidney and adrenal gland. The expression of the genes for orexin receptors in this range of ovine tissues suggests roles for orexins in multiple physiological functions, with actions at both central and peripheral levels.     

Physiological regulation and NO-dependent inhibition of migrating myoelectric complex in the rat small bowel by OXA

Orexin A (OXA)-positive neurons are found in the lateral hypothalamic area and the enteric nervous system. The aim of this study was to investigate the mechanism of OXA action on small bowel motility. Electrodes were implanted in the serosa of the rat small intestine for recordings of myoelectric activity during infusion of saline or OXA in naive rats, vagotomized rats, rats pretreated with guanethidine (3 mg/kg) or N(omega)-nitro-L-arginine (L-NNA; 1 mg/kg). Naive rats were given a bolus of the orexin receptor-1 (OX1R) antagonist (SB-334867-A; 10 mg/kg), and the effect of both OXA and SB-334867-A on fasting motility was studied. Double-label immunocytochemistry with primary antibodies against OXA, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), and OX1R was performed. OXA induced a dose-dependent prolongation of the cycle length of the migrating myoelectric complex (MMC) and, in the higher doses, replaced the activity fronts with an irregular spiking pattern. Vagotomy or pretreatment with guanethidine failed to prevent the response to OXA. The OXA-induced effect on the MMC cycle length was completely inhibited by pretreatment with L-NNA (P < 0.05), as did SB-334867-A. The OX1R antagonist shortened the MMC cycle length from 14.1 (12.0-23.5) to 11.0 (9.5-14.7) min (P < 0.05) during control and treatment periods, respectively. Colocalization of OXA and nNOS was observed in myenteric neurons of the duodenum and nerve fibers in the circular muscle. Our results indicate that OXA inhibition of the MMC involves the OX1R and that activation of a L-arginine/NO pathway possibly originating from OX1R/nNOS-containing neurons in the myenteric plexus may mediate this effect. Endogenous OXA may have a physiological role in regulating the MMC.     

Transfer of the AQP1 cDNA for the correction of radiation-induced salivary hypofunction

The treatment of most patients with head and neck cancer includes ionizing radiation (IR). Salivary glands in the IR field suffer significant and irreversible damage, leading to considerable morbidity. Previously, we reported that adenoviral (Ad)-mediated transfer of the human aquaporin-1 (hAQP1) cDNA to rat [C. Delporte, B.C. O'Connell, X. He, H.E. Lancaster, A.C. O'Connell, P. Agre, B.J. Baum, Increased fluid secretion after adenoviral-mediated transfer of the aquaporin-1 cDNA to irradiated rat salivary glands. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 94 (1997) 3268-3273] and miniature pig [Z. Shan, J. Li, C. Zheng, X. Liu, Z. Fan, C. Zhang, C.M. Goldsmith, R.B. Wellner, B.J Baum, S. Wang. Increased fluid secretion after adenoviral-mediated transfer of the human aquaporin-1 cDNA to irradiated miniature pig parotid glands. Mol. Ther. 11 (2005) 444-451] salivary glands approximately 16 weeks following IR resulted in a dose-dependent increase in salivary flow to > or =80% control levels on day 3. A control Ad vector was without any significant effect on salivary flow. Additionally, after administration of Ad vectors to salivary glands, no significant lasting effects were observed in multiple measured clinical chemistry and hematology values. Taken together, the findings show that localized delivery of AdhAQP1 to IR-damaged salivary glands is useful in transiently increasing salivary secretion in both small and large animal models, without significant general adverse events. Based on these results, we are developing a clinical trial to test if the hAQP1 cDNA transfer strategy will be clinically effective in restoring salivary flow in patients with IR-induced parotid hypofunction.     

Transfer of the AQP1 cDNA for the correction of radiation-induced salivary hypofunction

The treatment of most patients with head and neck cancer includes ionizing radiation (IR). Salivary glands in the IR field suffer significant and irreversible damage, leading to considerable morbidity. Previously, we reported that adenoviral (Ad)-mediated transfer of the human aquaporin-1 (hAQP1) cDNA to rat [C. Delporte, B.C. O'Connell, X. He, H.E. Lancaster, A.C. O'Connell, P. Agre, B.J. Baum, Increased fluid secretion after adenoviral-mediated transfer of the aquaporin-1 cDNA to irradiated rat salivary glands. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 94 (1997) 3268-3273] and miniature pig [Z. Shan, J. Li, C. Zheng, X. Liu, Z. Fan, C. Zhang, C.M. Goldsmith, R.B. Wellner, B.J Baum, S. Wang. Increased fluid secretion after adenoviral-mediated transfer of the human aquaporin-1 cDNA to irradiated miniature pig parotid glands. Mol. Ther. 11 (2005) 444-451] salivary glands ∼16 weeks following IR resulted in a dose-dependent increase in salivary flow to ≥80% control levels on day 3. A control Ad vector was without any significant effect on salivary flow. Additionally, after administration of Ad vectors to salivary glands, no significant lasting effects were observed in multiple measured clinical chemistry and hematology values. Taken together, the findings show that localized delivery of AdhAQP1 to IR-damaged salivary glands is useful in transiently increasing salivary secretion in both small and large animal models, without significant general adverse events. Based on these results, we are developing a clinical trial to test if the hAQP1 cDNA transfer strategy will be clinically effective in restoring salivary flow in patients with IR-induced parotid hypofunction.     

Expression of the orexin system in the porcine uterus,conceptus and trophoblast during early pregnancy

Orexin A and B are hypothalamic peptides derived from the prepro-orexin (PPO) precursor. Orexins stimulate food intake and arousal. Those peptides bind and activate two G protein-coupled receptors: orexin receptor 1 (OX1R) and orexin receptor 2 (OX2R). Numerous authors have suggested that orexins play an important role in the regulation of the reproductive functions. The objective of the present study was to analyse the presence of and changes in the gene and protein expression pattern of the orexin system in the porcine uterus, conceptus and trophoblast (chorioallantois) during early pregnancy. In the endometrium, the highest PPO and OX1R gene expression was detected on days 15 to 16 of gestation. The OX2R mRNA content in the endometrium was higher on days 10 to 11 and 15 to 16 than on days 12 to 13 and 27 to 28. In the trophoblasts, PPO gene expression was higher on days 30 to 32 than on days 27 to 28. The highest PPO protein content in the endometrium was noted on days 12 to 13. The highest OX1R protein content in the endometrium was detected on days 10 to 11, whereas OX2R protein on days 15 to 16. In the trophoblasts, PPO and OX1R protein levels were more pronounced on days 27 to 28 than on days 30 to 32, but OX2R expression was higher on days 30 to 32. The expression of PPO, OX1R and OX2R was different in the conceptuses and trophoblasts during early pregnancy. Local orexin production and the presence of the specific orexin receptors suggest that the orexin system may participate in the control of porcine reproductive functions by exerting endocrine and auto/paracrine effects on the uterus, conceptuses and trophoblasts during early pregnancy. This study provides the first evidence for the presence of orexins and their receptors in the uteri, conceptuses and trophoblasts in pigs during early pregnancy. The local orexin system is dependent on the stage of pregnancy.     

Adrenal expression of orexin receptor subtypes is differentially regulated in experimental streptozotocin induced type-1 diabetes

Orexins (hypocretins) are involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis and sleeping behavior. Orexins were also implicated in the regulation of neuroendocrine and autonomic functions. Recent data show the expression of orexin receptors within the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and suggest specific actions of orexins at the pituitary and adrenal glands. To further evaluate the role of orexin in the HPA axis, we investigated the mRNA expression of prepro-orexin (PPO) and orexin receptors within the HPA axis of streptozotocin-injected (STZ) rats showing type-1 like diabetes. PPO, as well as OX(1) and OX(2) receptor levels were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). STZ rats were characterized by decreased body weight, plasma insulin, and leptin levels and by increased plasma glucose. Hypothalamic PPO mRNA levels were significantly reduced in STZ compared to non-diabetic control rats. No differences were found in the mRNA levels of hypothalamic or pituitary OX(1) and OX(2) receptors between control and STZ rats. In adrenals, OX(1) receptor mRNA levels were significantly elevated in STZ rats while OX(2) receptors were significantly reduced. Our results imply distinct functions of adrenal orexin receptor subtypes during type-1 like diabetes.     

Orexins suppress catecholamine synthesis and secretion in cultured PC12 cells

New orexigenic peptides called orexin-A and -B have recently been described in neurons of the lateral hypothalamus and perifornical area. No orexins have been found in adipose tissues or visceral organs, including the adrenal gland. However, expression of the orexin-receptor 2 (OX2R) in the rat adrenal gland has been reported. To test the effects of orexins on peripheral organs, we investigated their effects on catecholamine synthesis and secretion in the rat pheochromocytoma cell line PC12. Orexin-A and -B (100 nM) significantly reduced basal and PACAP-induced tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) (the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of catecholamines) mRNA levels. Orexin-A and -B (100 nM) also significantly inhibited the PACAP-induced increase in the cAMP level, suggesting that the suppressive effect on TH mRNA is mediated, at least in part, by the cAMP/protein kinase A pathway. Furthermore, orexin-A and -B (100 nM) significantly suppressed basal and PACAP-induced dopamine secretion from PC12 cells. Next, we examined whether orexin receptors (OX1R, OX2R) were present in the rat adrenal gland and PC12 cells. In the adrenal glands, OX2R was as strongly expressed as in the hypothalamus, but OX1R was not detected. On the other hand, neither OX1R nor OX2R was expressed in PC12 cells. However, binding assays showed equal binding of orexin-A and -B to PC12 cells, suggesting the existence in these cells of some receptors for orexins. These results indicate that orexins suppress catecholamine release and synthesis, and that the inhibitory effect is mediated by the cAMP/protein kinase A pathway.     

Expression and localization of immunoreactive-sialomucin complex (Muc4) in salivary glands

Sialomucin Complex (SMC; Muc4) is a heterodimeric glycoprotein consisting of two subunits, the mucin component ASGP-1 and the transmembrane subunit ASGP-2. Northern blot and immunoblot analyses demonstrated the presence of SMC/Muc4 in submaxillary, sublingual and parotid salivary glands of the rat. Immunocytochemical staining of SMC using monoclonal antisera raised against ASGP-2 and glycosylated ASGP-1 on paraffin-embedded sections of parotid, submaxillary and sublingual tissues was performed to examine the localization of the mucin in the major rat salivary glands. Histological and immunocytochemical staining of cell markers showed that the salivary glands consisted of varying numbers of serous and mucous acini which are drained by ducts. Parotid glands were composed almost entirely of serous acini, sublingual glands were mainly mucous in composition and a mixture of serous and mucous acini were present in submaxillary glands. Since immunoreactive (ir)-SMC was specifically localized to the serous cells, staining was most abundant in parotid glands, intermediate levels in submaxillary glands and least in sublingual glands. Ir-SMC in sublingual glands was localized to caps of cells around mucous acini, known as serous demilunes, which are also present in submaxillary glands. Immunocytochemical staining of SMC in human parotid glands was localized to epithelial cells of serous acini and ducts. However, the staining pattern of epithelial cells was heterogeneous, with ir-SMC present in some acinar and ductal epithelial cells but not in others. This report provides a map of normal ir-SMC/Muc4 distribution in parotid, submaxillary and sublingual glands which can be used for the study of SMC/Muc4 expression in salivary gland tumors.     

Differential distribution and regulation of OX1 and OX2 orexin/hypocretin receptor messenger RNA in the brain upon fasting

To further understand the functions of the orexin/hypocretin system, we examined the expression and regulation of the orexin/hypocretin receptor (OX1R and OX2R) mRNA in the brain by using quantitative in situ hybridization. Expression of OX1R and OX2R mRNA exhibited distinct distribution patterns. Within the hypothalamus, expression for the OX1R mRNA was largely restricted in the ventromedial (VMH) and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei, while high levels of OX2R mRNA were contained in the paraventricular nucleus, VMH, and arcuate nucleus as well as in mammilary nuclei. In the amygdala, OX1R mRNA was expressed throughout the amygdaloid complex with robust labeling in the medial nucleus, while OX2R mRNA was only present in the posterior cortical nucleus of amygdala. High levels of OX2R mRNA were also observed in the ventral tegmental area. Moreover, both OX1R and OX2R mRNA were observed in the hippocampus, some thalamic nuclei, and subthalamic nuclei. Furthermore, we analyzed the effect of fasting on levels of OX1R and OX2R mRNA in the hypothalamic and amygdaloid subregions. After 20 h of fasting, levels of OX1R mRNA were significantly increased in the VMH and the medial division of amygdala. An initial decrease (14 h) and a subsequent increase (20 h) in OX1R mRNA levels after fasting were observed in the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus and lateral division of amygdala. Levels of OX2R mRNA were augmented in the arcuate nucleus, but remained unchanged in the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, and amygdala following fasting. The time-dependent and region-specific regulatory patterns of OX1R and OX2R suggest that they may participate in distinct neural circuits under the condition of food deprivation.     

Stimulatory effect of endogenous orexin A on gastric emptying and acid secretion independent of gastrin

Orexin A (OXA) increases food intake and inhibits fasting small bowel motility in rats. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of exogenous OXA and endogenous OXA on gastric emptying, acid secretion, glucose metabolism and distribution of orexin immunoreactivity in the stomach. Rats equipped with a gastric fistula were subjected to intravenous (IV) infusion of OXA or the selective orexin-1 receptor (OX1R) antagonist SB-334867-A during saline or pentagastrin infusion. Gastric emptying was studied with a liquid non-nutrient or nutrient, using 51Cr as radioactive marker. Gastric retention was measured after a 20-min infusion of OXA or SB-334867-A. Plasma concentrations of OXA, insulin, glucagon, glucose and gastrin were studied. Immunohistochemistry against OXA, OX1R and gastrin in gastric tissue was performed. OXA alone had no effect on either acid secretion or gastric emptying. SB-334867-A inhibited both basal and pentagastrin-induced gastric acid secretion and increased gastric retention of the liquid nutrient, but not PEG 4000. Plasma gastrin levels were unchanged by IV OXA or SB-334867-A. Plasma OXA levels decreased after intake of the nutrient meal and infusion of the OX1R antagonist. Only weak effects were seen on plasma glucose and insulin by OXA. Immunoreactivity to OXA and OX1R were found in the mucosa, myenteric cells bodies and varicose nerve fibers in ganglia and circular muscle of the stomach. In conclusion, endogenous OXA influences gastric emptying of a nutrient liquid and gastric acid secretion independent of gastrin. This indicates a role for endogenous OXA, not only in metabolic homeostasis, but also in the pre-absorptive processing of nutrients in the gut.     

Na+-Glucose Cotransporter SGLT1 Protein in Salivary Glands: Potential Involvement in the Diabetes-Induced Decrease in Salivary Flow

Oral health complications in diabetes include decreased salivary secretion. The SLC5A1 gene encodes the Na⁺-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 protein, which not only transports glucose, but also acts as a water channel. Since SLC5A1 expression is altered in kidneys of diabetic subjects, we hypothesize that it could also be altered in salivary glands, contributing to diabetic dysfunction. The present study shows a diabetes-induced decrease (p < 0.001) in salivary secretion, which was accompanied by enhanced (p < 0.05) SGLT1 mRNA expression in parotid (50%) and submandibular (30%) glands. Immunohistochemical analysis of parotid gland of diabetic rats revealed that SGLT1 protein expression increased in the luminal membrane of ductal cells, which can stimulate water reabsorption from primary saliva. Furthermore, SGLT1 protein was reduced in myoepithelial cells of the parotid from diabetic animals, and that, by reducing cellular contractile activity, might also be related to reduced salivary flux. Six-day insulin-treated diabetic rats reversed all alterations. In conclusion, diabetes increases SLC5A1 gene expression in salivary glands, increasing the SGLT1 protein content in the luminal membrane of ductal cells, which, by increasing water reabsorption, might explain the diabetes-induced decrease in salivary secretion.