Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and plant aquaporin expression

Almost all land plants have developed a symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Establishment of the association is accompanied by structural changes in the plant root. During arbuscule formation fungal hyphae penetrate the root apoplast and install highly specialized interfaces for solute transport between plant and fungus. The periarbuscular membrane which is part of the plant plasma membrane surrounding arbuscular structures was shown to harbour a high density of different transport systems. Among these also expression of aquaporins was described, which potentially can act as a low affinity transport system for ammonia or ammonium. The present study provides data for expression, localization and function of plant aquaporins in the periarbuscular membrane of mycorrhizal Medicago truncatula plants.     

Growth, respiration and nutrient acquisition by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae and its host plant Plantago lanceolata in cooled soil

Although plant phosphate uptake is reduced by low soil temperature, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are responsible for P uptake in many plants. We investigated growth and carbon allocation of the AM fungus Glomus mosseae and a host plant (Plantago lanceolata) under reduced soil temperature. Plants were grown in compartmented microcosm units to determine the impact on both fungus and roots of a constant 2.7 °C reduction in soil temperature for 16 d. C allocation was measured using two (13)CO(2) pulse labels. Although root growth was reduced by cooling, AM colonization, growth and respiration of the extraradical mycelium (ERM) and allocation of assimilated (13)C to the ERM were all unaffected; the frequency of arbuscules increased. In contrast, root respiration and (13)C content and plant P and Zn content were all reduced by cooling. Cooling had less effect on N and K, and none on Ca and Mg content. The AM fungus G. mosseae was more able to sustain activity in cooled soil than were the roots of P. lanceolata, and so enhanced plant P content under a realistic degree of soil cooling that reduced plant growth. AM fungi may therefore be an effective means to promote plant nutrition under low soil temperatures.     

Carbon trading for phosphorus gain: the balance between rhizosphere carboxylates and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in plant phosphorus acquisition

Two key plant adaptations for phosphorus (P) acquisition are carboxylate exudation into the rhizosphere and mycorrhizal symbioses. These target different soil P resources, presumably with different plant carbon costs. We examined the effect of inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on amount of rhizosphere carboxylates and plant P uptake for 10 species of low‐P adapted Kennedia grown for 23 weeks in low‐P sand. Inoculation decreased carboxylates in some species (up to 50%), decreased plant dry weight (21%) and increased plant P content (23%). There was a positive logarithmic relationship between plant P content and the amount of rhizosphere citric acid for inoculated and uninoculated plants. Causality was indicated by experiments using sand where little citric acid was lost from the soil solution over 2 h and citric acid at low concentrations desorbed P into the soil solution. Senesced leaf P concentration was often low and P‐resorption efficiencies reached >90%. In conclusion, we propose that mycorrhizally mediated resource partitioning occurred because inoculation reduced rhizosphere carboxylates, but increased plant P uptake. Hence, presumably, the proportion of plant P acquired from strongly sorbed sources decreased with inoculation, while the proportion from labile inorganic P increased. Implications for plant fitness under field conditions now require investigation.     

Fungal and plant gene expression in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

Arbuscular mycorrhizas (AMs) are a unique example of symbiosis between two eukaryotes, soil fungi and plants. This association induces important physiological changes in each partner that lead to reciprocal benefits, mainly in nutrient supply. The symbiosis results from modifications in plant and fungal cell organization caused by specific changes in gene expression. Recently, much effort has gone into studying these gene expression patterns to identify a wider spectrum of genes involved. We aim in this review to describe AM symbiosis in terms of current knowledge on plant and fungal gene expression profiles.An erratum to this article can be found at     

Regulation of the plant defence response in arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

The response of plants to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi involves a temporal and spatial activation of different defence mechanisms. The activation and regulation of these defences have been proposed to play a role in the maintenance of the mutualistic status of the association, however, how these defences affect the functioning and development of arbuscular mycorrhiza remains unclear. A number of regulatory mechanisms of plant defence response have been described during the establishment of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis, including elicitor degradation, modulation of second messenger concentration, nutritional and hormonal plant defence regulation, and activation of regulatory symbiotic gene expression. The functional characterization of these regulatory mechanisms on arbuscular mycorrhiza, including cross-talk between them, will be the aim and objective of future work on this topic.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant symbiosis in a saline-sodic soil

The seasonality of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi–plant symbiosis in Lotus glaber Mill. and Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) O.K. and the association with phosphorus (P) plant nutrition were studied in a saline-sodic soil at the four seasons during a year. Plant roots of both species were densely colonized by AM fungi (90 and 73%, respectively in L. glaber and S. secundatum) at high values of soil pH (9.2) and exchangeable sodium percentage (65%). The percentage of colonized root length differed between species and showed seasonality. The morphology of root colonization had a similar pattern in both species. The arbuscular colonization fraction increased at the beginning of the growing season and was positively associated with increased P concentration in both shoot and root tissue. The vesicular colonization fraction was high in summer when plants suffer from stress imposed by high temperatures and drought periods, and negatively associated with P in plant tissue. Spore and hyphal densities in soil were not associated with AM root colonization and did not show seasonality. Our results suggest that AM fungi can survive and colonize L. glaber and S. secundatum roots adapted to extreme saline-sodic soil condition. The symbiosis responds to seasonality and P uptake by the host altering the morphology of root colonization.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis increases relative apoplastic water flow in roots of the host plant under both well-watered and drought stress conditions

Background and Aims

The movement of water through mycorrhizal fungal tissues and between the fungus and roots is little understood. It has been demonstrated that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis regulates root hydraulic properties, including root hydraulic conductivity. However, it is not clear whether this effect is due to a regulation of root aquaporins (cell-to-cell pathway) or to enhanced apoplastic water flow. Here we measured the relative contributions of the apoplastic versus the cell-to-cell pathway for water movement in roots of AM and non-AM plants.

Methods

We used a combination of two experiments using the apoplastic tracer dye light green SF yellowish and sodium azide as an inhibitor of aquaporin activity. Plant water and physiological status, root hydraulic conductivity and apoplastic water flow were measured.

Key Results

Roots of AM plants enhanced significantly relative apoplastic water flow as compared with non-AM plants and this increase was evident under both well-watered and drought stress conditions. The presence of the AM fungus in the roots of the host plants was able to modulate the switching between apoplastic and cell-to-cell water transport pathways.

Conclusions

The ability of AM plants to switch between water transport pathways could allow a higher flexibility in the response of these plants to water shortage according to the demand from the shoot.     

The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis links N mineralization to plant demand

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi facilitate inorganic N (NH₄ ⁺ or NO₃ ⁻) uptake by plants, but their role in N mobilization from organic sources is unclear. We hypothesized that arbuscular mycorrhizae enhance the ability of a plant to use organic residues (ORs) as a source of N. This was tested under controlled glasshouse conditions by burying a patch of OR in soil separated by 20-μm nylon mesh so that only fungal hyphae can pass through it. The fate of the N contained in the OR patch, as influenced by Glomus claroideum, Glomus clarum, or Glomus intraradices over 24 weeks, was determined using ¹⁵N as a tracer. AM fungal species enhanced N mineralization from OR to different levels. N recovery and translocation to Russian wild rye by hyphae reached 25% of mineralized N in G. clarum, which was most effective despite its smaller extraradical development in soil. Mobilization of N by G. clarum relieved plant N deficiency and enhanced plant growth. We show that AM hyphae modify soil functioning by linking plant growth to N mineralization from OR. AM species enhance N mineralization differentially leading to species-specific changes in the quality of the soil environment (soil C-to-N ratio) and structure of the soil microbial community.     

丛枝菌根真菌与植物共生对植物水分关系的影响及机理

自1885年Frank首次提到菌根(mykorhiza)概念以来,大量的试验证实了丛枝菌根真菌(AMF)与植物根系之间形成具有一定结构和功能的共生体,促进植物生长并提高干旱耐受能力,在干旱生态系统中发挥重要的作用。该研究多集中在对宿主植物生理生态的影响及其机制方面,然而菌根共生对宿主植物水分吸收和信号产生、传递的影响研究少而分散,缺少系统总结。综述了最近四十多年丛枝菌根真菌与植物共生体对宿主植物干旱适应性影响研究进展,讨论了菌根共生对植物根冠通讯的影响及机理。干旱胁迫下AMF与植物共生,通过影响宿主植物一系列生理生态过程,提高宿主植物横向根压和纵向蒸腾拉力。经典的Ohm吸水模型是该方向最有代表性的研究成果,该模型揭示了菌根共生的根外菌丝具有不同于根细胞的细胞结构和水分运输性能,这为宿主植物提供一种特殊的快速吸水方式,可提高植物对土壤水分的吸收和运输能力。研究表明,AMF会影响宿主植物根冠通讯过程,如诱发信号级联反应,诱导根系尽早感知水分胁迫并产生非水力根源信号,提高宿主对干旱的耐受性。讨论了AMF在根冠通讯分子机制研究方面存在的问题及可能的解决途径,展望了AMF在干旱农业生产中的应用潜力。     

Deficit and excess of soil water impact on plant growth of Lotus tenuis by affecting nutrient uptake and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

The impact of deficit and excess of soil water on plant growth, morphological plant features, N and P plant nutrition, soil properties, Rhizobium nodulation and the symbiosis between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and Lotus tenuis Waldst. & Kit. were studied in a saline-sodic soil. Water excess treatment decreased root growth by 36% and increased shoot growth by 13% whereas water deficit treatment decreased both root and shoot growth (26 and 32%, respectively). Differences between stress conditions on shoot growth were due to the ability of L. tenuis to tolerate low oxygen concentration in the soil and the sufficiency of nutrients in soil to sustain shoot growth demands. Water excess treatment decreased pH, and increased available P and labile C in soil. Water deficit treatment decreased available P and also increased labile C. In general, N and P acquisition were affected more by water excess than water deficit. The number of nodules per gram of fresh roots only increased in water excess roots (97%). Under both stress conditions there was a significant proportion of roots colonized by AM fungi. Compared to control treatment, arbuscule formation decreased by 55 and 14% under water excess and water deficit, respectively. Vesicle formation increased 256% in water excess treatment and did not change under water deficit treatment. L. tenuis plants subjected to water deficit or excess treatments could grow, nodulated and maintained a symbiotic association with AM fungi by different strategies. Under water excess, L. tenuis plants decreased root growth and increased shoot growth to facilitate water elimination by transpiration. Under water deficit, L. tenuis plants decreased root growth but also shoot growth which in turn significant decreased the shoot/root ratio. In the present study, under water excess conditions AM fungi reduced nutrient transfer structures (arbuscules), the number of entry points and spore, and hyphal densities in soil, but increased resistance structures (vesicles). At water deficit, however, AM fungi reduced external hyphae and arbuscules to some extent, investing more in maintaining a similar proportion of vesicles in roots and spores in soil compared to control treatment.     

Impact of temperature on the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis: growth responses of the host plant and its AM fungal partner

The growth response of the hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi has been determined, both when plant and fungus together and when only the fungus was exposed to a temperature change. Two host plant species, Plantago lanceolata and Holcus lanatus, were grown separately in pots inoculated with the mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae at 20/18 degrees C (day/night); half of the pots were then transferred to 12/10 degrees C. Plant and fungal growth were determined at six sequential destructive harvests. A second experiment investigated the direct effect of temperature on the length of the extra-radical mycelium (ERM) of three mycorrhizal fungal species. Growth boxes were divided in two equal compartments by a 20 micro m mesh, allowing only the ERM and not roots to grow into a fungal compartment, which was either heated (+8 degrees C) or kept at ambient temperature. ERM length (LERM) was determined on five sampling dates. Growth of H. lanatus was little affected by temperature, whereas growth of P. lanceolata increased with temperature, and both specific leaf area (SLA) and specific root length (SRL) increased independently of plant size. Percentage of colonized root (LRC) and LERM were positively correlated with temperature when in symbiosis with P. lanceolata, but differences in LRC were a function of plant biomass. Colonization was very low in H. lanatus roots and there was no significant temperature effect. In the fungal compartment LERM increased over time and was greatest for Glomus mosseae. Heating the fungal compartment significantly increased LERM in two of the three species but did not affect LRC. However, it significantly increased SRL of roots in the plant compartment, suggesting that the fungus plays a regulatory role in the growth dynamics of the symbiosis. These temperature responses have implications for modelling carbon dynamics under global climate change.     

Development of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis formed between plant roots and fungi is one of the most widespread symbiotic associations found in plants, yet our understanding of events underlying its development are limited. The recent integration of biochemical, molecular and genetic approaches into analyses of the symbiosis is providing new insights into various aspects of its development. In the past year there have been advances in our understanding of the signals required for the formation of appressoria, the molecular changes in the root in response to colonisation, and components of the signal transduction pathways common to both the AM and Rhizobium symbioses.     

On the modeling paradigm of plant root nutrient acquisition

Plant and Soil - This study investigated maize-soil biota interactions as well as the soil legacy effects of continuous monoculture (CM) on maize performance. We conducted a glasshouse experiment...