Desiccation tolerance in fully developed embryos of two cicadas, Cryptotympana facialis and Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata

In two Japanese cicadas, Cryptotympana facialis and Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata , with different habitat distributions, fully developed embryos hatch in response to high humidity due to rainfall. Despite the advantage of hatching on rainy days, this trait burdens embryos with an extra period of desiccation until the unpredictable advent of rain. We compared the ability of the fully developed embryos of these cicadas to endure periods of low humidity. Eggs were exposed to a combination of different humidities (43% and 75% relative humidity, RH) and durations (0–15 days), and then transferred to an environment with 100% RH to stimulate hatching. In both species, total hatching rates decreased as duration increased, although there was no significant effect of humidity. In C. facialis , a considerable proportion of the eggs hatched during the desiccation period, and the hatching rate was higher at 75% RH than at 43% RH. After transfer to 100% RH, most hatching occurred within a day regardless of the desiccation level. In G. nigrofuscata , no nymphs hatched during the desiccation periods. However, more eggs required more than a day after transfer to 100% RH to hatch after desiccation at 43% RH than at 75% RH. Consequently, the overall proportion of timely hatching of eggs (eggs hatching within a day of moisture supply) was higher after desiccation at 43% RH in C. facialis , but it was higher after desiccation at 75% RH in G. nigrofuscata . These different physiological responses of the two species may reflect adaptation to habitat dryness.     

Diapause and prolonged development in the embryo and their ecological significance in two cicadas, Cryptotympana facialis and Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata

The seasonal timing mechanism of egg hatching was examined in two cicadas, Cryptotympana facialis and Graptopsaltria nigrofuscata, with different but overlapping geographical distributions. These species lay eggs in summer, and nymphs hatch in the summer of the following year after egg durations of 10-12 months. When eggs were maintained at 25 °C from oviposition, both the species entered embryonic diapause within 60 days irrespective of photoperiod, but at different developmental stages between the two species. The optimal temperature for diapause development was approximately 15 °C in both the species. The development rate for postdiapause morphogenesis increased linearly with temperature in the range of 20-27.5 °C in C. facialis, and of 15-25 °C in G. nigrofuscata. The lower development threshold and the sum of effective temperatures were computed as 14.3 °C and 715.3 day-degrees in C. facialis and 12.1 °C and 566.6 day-degrees in G. nigrofuscata, respectively. The hatching dates predicted by these large thermal constants accorded with the hatching dates observed in the field, i.e., late June and mid-July in G. nigrofuscata and C. facialis, respectively. Therefore, the high thermal requirements for postdiapause development compel the cicadas to hatch in summer.     

Ecophysiological responses to climate change in cicadas

Cicadas are large hemipteran insects characterized by unique life‐history traits, such as extraordinarily long life cycles, a subterranean/terrestrial habitat transition, xylem sap‐feeding and melodious sound production. These fascinating features of cicadas have attracted much attention in the research fields of physiology and ecology, resulting in an accumulation of knowledge about the underlying mechanisms and their adaptive significance. Although community‐level responses to recent climate change have already been documented for cicada fauna, an understanding of their causal relationships is still at the initial stages. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about environmental adaptations of cicadas to facilitate a deeper understanding of the ecophysiological consequences of climate change. We first outline the diverse responses of cicadas to environmental factors, mainly temperature, and their strategies to cope with naturally fluctuating environments. Then, we discuss the consequence of upcoming climate change by consolidating the current findings. This review highlights the fact that fitness‐relevant activities are fine‐tuned to a species‐specific temperature optimum to achieve habitat segregation among coexisting species, implying that cicada diversity is highly susceptible to climate warming. As a result of their conspicuous large bodies and species‐specific calling songs, cicadas are promising candidates for use as bioindicator species to monitor ecological impacts of climate change. We encourage future works that continuously quantify population‐ and community‐level responses to upcoming climate change, as well as unveil mechanistic links between physiological traits and ecological consequences.     

Thermal tolerance and climate warming sensitivity in tropical snails

Tropical ectotherms are predicted to be especially vulnerable to climate change because their thermal tolerance limits generally lie close to current maximum air temperatures. This prediction derives primarily from studies on insects and lizards and remains untested for other taxa with contrasting ecologies. We studied the HCT (heat coma temperatures) and ULT (upper lethal temperatures) of 40 species of tropical eulittoral snails (Littorinidae and Neritidae) inhabiting exposed rocky shores and shaded mangrove forests in Oceania, Africa, Asia and North America. We also estimated extremes in animal body temperature at each site using a simple heat budget model and historical (20 years) air temperature and solar radiation data. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that HCT and ULT exhibit limited adaptive variation across habitats (mangroves vs. rocky shores) or geographic locations despite their contrasting thermal regimes. Instead, the elevated heat tolerance of these species (HCT = 44.5 ± 1.8°C and ULT = 52.1 ± 2.2°C) seems to reflect the extreme temperature variability of intertidal systems. Sensitivity to climate warming, which was quantified as the difference between HCT or ULT and maximum body temperature, differed greatly between snails from sunny (rocky shore; Thermal Safety Margin, TSM = −14.8 ± 3.3°C and −6.2 ± 4.4°C for HCT and ULT, respectively) and shaded (mangrove) habitats (TSM = 5.1 ± 3.6°C and 12.5 ± 3.6°C). Negative TSMs in rocky shore animals suggest that mortality is likely ameliorated during extreme climatic events by behavioral thermoregulation. Given the low variability in heat tolerance across species, habitat and geographic location account for most of the variation in TSM and may adequately predict the vulnerability to climate change. These findings caution against generalizations on the impact of global warming across ectothermic taxa and highlight how the consideration of nonmodel animals, ecological transitions, and behavioral responses may alter predictions of studies that ignore these biological details.     

低温对沙葱萤叶甲越冬卵存活和发育的影响

【目的】沙葱萤叶甲Galeruca daurica(Joannis)是近年来在内蒙古草原暴发成灾的一种新害虫,以卵在牛粪、石块及草丛下越冬,了解其越冬卵的抗寒能力有助于预测其分布范围及种群数量动态。【方法】在室内测定了沙葱萤叶甲越冬卵在不同低温条件下(-18~-39℃)暴露12和24 h及在-30℃低温条件下暴露不同时间(0~60 d)的存活率以及存活卵的发育历期。【结果】低温强度和暴露时间对沙葱萤叶甲越冬卵的存活率有显著影响,随着温度的降低和暴露时间的延长,越冬卵的存活率降低。当温度≤-33℃暴露12 h或≤-30℃暴露24 h,越冬卵存活率显著低于其相应的对照(25℃)。越冬卵低温暴露12和24 h的致死中温度(LT50)分别为-33.08和-32.13℃,在-30℃下的致死中时间(Lt50)为33.33 d。经-36℃低温暴露12 h或≤-33℃低温暴露24 h后,存活的越冬卵发育历期显著延长,而-30℃低温暴露30 d内差异不显著。【结论】沙葱萤叶甲越冬卵抗寒能力强,冬季低温通常不会造成越冬卵的大量死亡。     

Allopatric populations of the invasive larch casebearer differ in cold tolerance and phenology

1. Traits of non-native insect herbivores may vary spatially due to local genetic differences, rapid post-introduction evolution, and/or novel host plant associations. 2. Populations of larch casebearer, Coleophora laricella Hübner, originally from Europe have likely been isolated for > 60 years in North America on eastern larch, Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch, and western larch, Larix occidentalis Nutt. 3. This study investigated cold tolerance and phenology of larvae collected from eastern larch in Minnesota, and western larch in Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, U.S.A. 4. Mean supercooling points of larvae from Minnesota were up to 10 °C lower than supercooling points of larvae from Oregon, Idaho, and Montana. 5. At ambient environmental conditions in spring, overwintering larvae from Minnesota required a mean (± SE) of 172 ± 19 degree-days above 5 °C to break winter quiescence and actively wander, significantly more than required by larvae from Oregon (66 ± 4), Idaho (64 ± 1), and Montana (60 ± 2). 6. Across all assays and despite substantial latitudinal and elevational variation among western larch sites, no significant differences in any traits were detected among larvae collected from western larch. 7. Spatial variation in cold tolerance and phenological traits of larch casebearer may be attributable to insect genetic differences and/or host plant effects, but exact mechanisms remain unknown. Differences in thermal biology between regions may result in disparate effects of climate change on insect populations and should be accounted for when forecasting insect dynamics across large spatial scales.     

基于源汇指数的沈阳热岛效应

基于2001和2010年Landsat 遥感影像,利用GIS技术识别沈阳城市热岛源区和汇区,利用地表温度(LST)、源区和汇区面积比率指数（CI）和热岛强度指数（LI）,评价分析了沈阳土地利用发展布局模式对热岛效应的影响.结果表明: 2001-2010年,沈阳三环内土地利用类型变化较大,导致热岛源、汇区面积变化明显,且主要发生在二环和三环.2001年,一环内热岛源、汇区面积比例分别为94.3%和5.7%,三环内分别为64.0%和36.0%;2010年,其比例在一环内分别为93.4%和6.6%,三环内分别为70.2%和29.8%,说明10年来“摊饼式”土地利用布局决定了沈阳热岛效应的“摊饼式”布局.研究期间,沈阳地表温度从一环至三环均呈递减趋势,热岛效应强度在2001年以单一中心为主,至2010年发展为多中心态势,热岛效应强度等级有所降低.从一环至三环,CI绝对值均呈增加趋势,LI值均小于1,说明期间研究区土地利用布局变化对改善区域热岛效应没有明显作用.     

Differential responses of thermal tolerance to acclimation in the sub-Antarctic rove beetle Halmaeusa atriceps

Abstract. Investigations of the responses to acclimation of upper and lower lethal limits and limits to activity in insects have focused primarily on Drosophila. In the present study, Halmaeusa atriceps (Staphylinidae) is examined for thermal tolerance responses to acclimation, and seasonal acclimatization. In summer and winter, lower lethal temperatures of adults and larvae are approximately −7.6 ± 0.03 and −11.1 ± 0.06 °C, respectively. Supercooling points (SCPs) are more variable, with winter SCPs of −5.4 ± 0.4 °C in larvae and −6.3 ± 0.8 °C in adults. The species appears to be chill susceptible in summer and moderately freeze tolerant in winter, thus showing seasonal acclimatization. Similar changes cannot be induced solely by acclimation to low temperatures in the laboratory. Upper lethal temperatures show a weaker response to acclimation. There are also significant responses to acclimation of critical thermal limits. Critical thermal minima vary between −3.6 ± 0.2 and −0.6 ± 0.2 °C in larvae, and from −4.1 ± 0.1 to −0.8 ± 0.2 °C in adults. By contrast, critical thermal maxima vary much less within adults and larvae. These findings are in keeping with the general pattern found in insects, although this species differs in several respects from others found on Marion Island.     

City limits: Heat tolerance is influenced by body size and hydration state in an urban ant community

Cities are rapidly expanding, and global warming is intensified in urban environments due to the urban heat island effect. Therefore, urban animals may be particularly susceptible to warming associated with ongoing climate change. We used a comparative and manipulative approach to test three related hypotheses about the determinants of heat tolerance or critical thermal maximum (CT_max) in urban ants—specifically, that (a) body size, (b) hydration status, and (c) chosen microenvironments influence CT_max. We further tested a fourth hypothesis that native species are particularly physiologically vulnerable in urban environments. We manipulated water access and determined CT_max for 11 species common to cities in California's Central Valley that exhibit nearly 300‐fold variation in body size. There was a moderate phylogenetic signal influencing CT_max, and inter (but not intra) specific variation in body size influenced CT_max where larger species had higher CT_max. The sensitivity of ants’ CT_max to water availability exhibited species‐specific thresholds where short‐term water limitation (8 hr) reduced CT_max and body water content in some species while longer‐term water limitation (32 hr) was required to reduce these traits in other species. However, CT_max was not related to the temperatures chosen by ants during activity. Further, we found support for our fourth hypothesis because CT_max and estimates of thermal safety margin in native species were more sensitive to water availability relative to non‐native species. In sum, we provide evidence of links between heat tolerance and water availability, which will become critically important in an increasingly warm, dry, and urbanized world that others have shown may be selecting for smaller (not larger) body size.     

Cold tolerance of the invasive larch casebearer and implications for invasion success

相似文献   

Effects of alternating exposure to cold and heat for 14 days on cold tolerance in winter

People are exposed to heat regularly due to their jobs or daily habits in cold winter, but few studies have reported whether parallel heat and cold exposure and diminish cold acclimation. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of alternating exposure to cold and heat on cold tolerance in eight young males. A daily acclimation program to cold and heat, which consisted of 2-h sitting at 10 °C air in the morning and 2-h running and rest at 30 °C air in the afternoon, was conducted for 14 consecutive days. Eight male subjects participated in a cold tolerance test (10 °C [ ± 0.3], 40%RH[ ± 3]) before (PRE) and after (POST) completing the alternating exposure program. During the cold tolerance test, subjects remained sitting upright on a chair for 60 min. Rectal temperature (T_re) was lower in POST than in PRE during the 60-min cold tolerance test (P = 0.027). During the cold tolerance test, systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial blood pressures in POST were lower than those in PRE (P = 0.006, P = 0.005, and P = 0.004). No significant differences in skin temperatures between PRE and POST were found for the cold tolerance test. There were no significant differences in energy expenditure during cold exposure between PRE and POST. Subjects felt less cold in POST than in PRE (P = 0.013) whereas there was no significant difference in overall thermal comfort between PRE and POST. These results suggest that cold adaptation can still occur in the presence of heat stress.     

Freeze tolerance in larvae of the winter-active Diamesa mendotae Muttkowski (Diptera: Chironomidae): a contrast to adult strategy for survival at low temperatures

The winter-active Diamesa mendotae Muttkowski (Diptera: Chironomidae) is freeze intolerant in the adult stage with a low mean supercooling point (SCP) of ~−20 °C. However, cold-hardiness strategies for immatures of this species are unknown. In this study, we measured SCP values for D. mendotae larvae, pupae and adults using surface-contact thermometry. In addition, the lower lethal temperature (LLT) was determined for the larval stage. The mean SCPs for larvae (−7.4 °C) and pupae (−9.1 °C) were relatively high compared to adults (−19.7 °C). Our results indicate that the larvae of D. mendotae are freeze tolerant with a LLT₉₉ (−25.4 °C), ~−10 °C lower than their minimum SCP (−15.6 °C). Freeze tolerance in these larvae may be a strategy to provide protection from short-term exposures to ice crystals or to permit diapause within frozen substrates. The change in cold-hardiness strategy from freeze tolerant to freeze intolerant between the larval and adult stages of this species is likely a result of the different habitats occupied by these two life stages.     

Heat island effects in urban life cycle assessment: Novel insights to include the effects of the urban heat island and UHI‐mitigation measures in LCA for effective policy making

Urbanization often entails a surge in urban temperature compared to the rural surroundings: the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. Such a temperature increase triggers the formation of pollutants worsening the urban air quality. Jointly, bad air quality and UHI affect ecosystems and human health. To alleviate the impacts on the population and the environment, it is crucial to design effective UHI‐mitigation measures. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is an assessment tool able to capture the complexity of urban settlements and quantify their impact. Yet, as currently implemented, LCA neglects the interactions between the built environment and the local climate, omitting the resulting impacts. This study reviews the existing literature, showing the lack of studies that organically include interactions between the built environment and local climate in LCA. This forms the basis to identify the unsuitability of the current LCA framework for comprehensively capturing the impact of urban settlements. To overcome this limitation, this research offers a pathway to expand the LCA methodology, indicating the necessity to (a) couple the LCA methodology with climate models or physical relations that quantify the interactions between the local climate and the built environment; (b) include novel impact categories in LCA to address such interactions; and (c) use existing or ad hoc developed characterization factors to assess the impacts related to the UHI effect. The LCA community can build on the frame of reference offered by this research to overcome the current limitations of LCA and enable its use for a comprehensive assessment of the impacts of UHI and its mitigation measures.     

1956-1998年间中纬度近海与内陆城市年气温与热岛效应的变化趋势

选取纬度相近、发展规模类似的近海（济南）与内陆（西安）城市为研究对象,对比分析了1956—1998年间济南和西安气温与热岛效应的变化趋势.结果表明：1956—1978年间,除济南年均最低气温以0.37 ℃·10 a^-1的速率上升外,2个城市的气温指标均无明显变化趋势;1979—1998年间,2个城市则表现出显著的增温趋势,其中西安年均最高气温和年均气温的增加速率大于济南,济南年均最低气温的增加速率大于西安.1956—1978年间,2个城市均存在城市热岛效应但无显著增加趋势,1979—1998年间的热岛效应明显强化,以西安在年均气温（0.22 ℃·10 a^-1）和年均最低气温（0.32 ℃·10 a^-1）上表现的热岛效应的增加趋势更为明显.济南热岛效应强度和年际波动均大于西安,但其增加速率却小于西安.济南年均最高气温、年均气温和年均最低气温的增温速率和热岛效应强度明显不同,西安则较接近.3个气温指标中以年均最低气温的增加趋势最明显,同时对热岛效应的响应最显著,年均最高气温的波动性最大.地理位置不但影响城市增温的幅度,而且也深刻影响着城市增温的形式与热岛效应强度.     

温度升高对昆虫发生发展的影响

全世界地表平均温度在上个世纪增加了0.74℃,并且在未来还会持续增加。在过去的20年,气候变暖对生物系统的影响吸引了大量的研究。本文综述了由温度升高为主要驱动因子的气候变化对昆虫适合度的影响,主要从昆虫越冬存活率、化性(世代数)、扩散迁移、发生分布、物候关系5个方面阐述气候变暖对昆虫发生发展的作用,认为未来应长期进行昆虫种群动态监测预警,更关注气候变暖下植物-害虫-天敌互作关系的研究。     

Maternal control of cold and desiccation tolerance in eggs of the band-legged ground cricket Dianemobius nigrofasciatus in relation to embryonic diapause

Cold and desiccation tolerance was investigated in the eggs of the band‐legged ground cricket Dianemobius nigrofasciatus in relation to embryonic diapause. Diapause eggs were more tolerant to both desiccation and cold than non‐diapause eggs. In addition, diapause‐destined eggs on day zero (0–12 h after being laid) already showed high tolerance to these stresses before entering diapause. This clearly indicates that stress tolerance, like diapause, is controlled by photoperiod, but is not directly associated with diapause itself. Because the acquisition of stress tolerance predates the onset of diapause, it is plausible that diapause programming during some period before the onset of diapause is involved in the acquisition of stress tolerance. Weights and sizes were nearly identical in short‐day and long‐day eggs until day five. Sorbitol, a major sugar alcohol in eggs of D. nigrofasciatus, was accumulated at the same level in short‐day and long‐day eggs on days zero and five. These results indicate that the surface‐to‐volume ratio as well as the accumulation of sugar alcohol is not involved in the acquisition of stress tolerance. Maternal factors are clearly involved in the acquisition of stress tolerance in D. nigrofasciatus eggs, but the physiological mechanisms underlying the tolerance are still unclear.     

Physiological aspects of diapause and cold tolerance during overwintering in Pieris brassicae

Abstract The relationship between diapause-associated metabolic suppression and carbohydrate metabolism linked with cold tolerance was investigated in pupae of Pieris brassicae L. Cold tolerance was assessed by measuring the crystallization temperature (T_c) and by estimates of pre-freeze mortality. Metabolic suppression was measured using ³¹P nmr and carbohydrates by GLC. Sorbitol (a possible cryoprotectant) accumulated from the onset of diapause in October until December reaching a concentration of c. 40 mMolal in both years of the study, but then declined from January until adult eclosion in May. The T_c remained between -23 and -25^oC throughout the winter except for a slight rise before eclosion in May. The absence of a significant T_c suppression is as predicted from the low concentration of sorbitol accumulated. The pre-freeze mortality experiments indicate that pupae are most cold tolerant in the period December-February when sorbitol concentration is high, suggesting an alternative cryoprotective role for sorbitol. Glycogen declined at the beginning of diapause until February after which there was some recovery suggesting that it may be the source of carbon for sorbitol synthesis. Diapause-associated metabolic suppression is evident in the low ³¹P nmr resonances of ATP during November-February compared with non-diapause pupae and diapause pupae soon after pupation. The suppression of metabolism at this time may have a direct role in cryoprotection and by itself (rather than sorbitol) account for the increased pre-freeze cold tolerance. ATP appears to increase slowly from February until a sharp increase occurs shortly before eclosion. Arginine phosphate remains high during diapause until late February-March when it begins a decline which continues until eclosion. A period of change in energy and carbohydrate metabolism is apparent at the same time which may indicate diapause termination and related changes in cold tolerance mechanisms. It is argued that in P.brassicae sorbitol accumulates as a result of metabolic suppression and may have no cryoprotective role. However, for species living in, or colonizing, low temperature environments it is a short evolutionary step to exploit this pathway and accumulate high concentrations of polyols as a specialized cold tolerance strategy.     

沙葱萤叶甲的过冷却能力与抗寒性

【目的】沙葱萤叶甲Galeruca daurica Joannis于2009年开始在内蒙古草原暴发成灾, 发生地区不断扩大, 危害日趋严重, 严重影响内蒙古草原畜牧业的可持续发展和生态安全。低温是影响昆虫生长发育和存活的关键因子, 而昆虫对低温的耐受性决定了其越冬存活率。了解沙葱萤叶甲的过冷却点及抗寒能力有助于预测其分布范围及种群数量动态。【方法】采用热电偶法, 在室内测定了沙葱萤叶甲各发育阶段的过冷却点; 比较了幼虫在不同低温条件下（-6~-14℃）暴露2 h及在-5℃低温条件下暴露不同时间（0.5~8 d）的存活率。【结果】沙葱萤叶甲不同发育阶段的过冷却点存在显著差异, 从低到高依次为卵（-29.8℃）、 1龄幼虫（-14.6℃）、 2龄幼虫（-13.3℃）、 蛹（-12.1℃）、 3龄幼虫（-10.2℃）和成虫（-9.0℃）; 越冬卵12月和1月的过冷却点最低, 2月的过冷却点最高。随着处理温度的降低和处理时间的延长, 幼虫的存活率降低。1, 2和3龄幼虫在-5℃下的半致死时间（Ltime₅₀）分别为3.84, 3.80和2.28 d, 低温处理2 h后半致死温度（Ltemp₅₀）分别为-10.1, -9.1和-8.5℃, 高于其过冷却点。【结论】说明沙葱萤叶甲幼虫为不耐寒冷型(chill-intolerant)。     

唐山市域1993-2009年热场变化

唐山市是河北省经济和城市化发展都很快的区域,为了给唐山市生态市规划提供生态建设空间布局依据,利用1993年8月18日和2009年8月30日的TM卫星影像,对其市域的热场变化情况进行了研究。结果表明,唐山市域热场都呈现出东部和中部热场较强、其余区域相对较较弱的空间特征。强热岛主要集中在南部的低平原湿地生态系统保护亚区和曹妃甸循环经济与生态港城建设亚区,以及中部的平原生态城镇建设亚区。从相对亮温来看,在1993年到2009年,唐山市的绿岛面积和强热岛面积增加的数量最大,分别达到了38326.05hm²和25497.81hm²,极强热岛的面积2009年是1993年相应面积的3.88倍。最稳定的热力景观斑块类型为绿岛斑块,其保持不变的面积达到了77.6%;而最不稳定的景观斑块类型为极强热岛,其发生变化的面积比例达到了97.05%;其他类型的稳定性相对较小,均低于50%。文章还从植被、土地利用、城市建设和工业发展等方面,分析了唐山市热场变化的原因。     

2003-2011年夏季北京城市热景观变化特征

自北京城市总体规划(2004—2020年)以来,城市化快速发展,强烈的人类活动改变了城市的热环境。基于2003年、2007年和2011年夏季同时期的TM遥感卫星影像,采用遥感反演地温的方法,运用RS、GIS以及景观分析工具,对北京城市六环内的热场和热岛变化特征进行了分析。分析结果表明,2003—2011年北京城市六环内的热场分布特征发生了很大变化,2003年城市各环线内的植被覆盖度最低,但是夏季城市的地表辐射亮温分布差异相对较小,热岛特征也并不十分明显,随着城市建设规模扩大和用能的增加,到2011年,尽管城市植被覆盖度提高很快,但城市和城郊的温差达到最大,城市热岛在不断增强,热场向城市中心集聚趋势明显。通过城市热岛等级类型的景观指数分析表明,2011年的高等级的热岛斑块分布范围和强度都明显提高,而且城市五环内高等级的热岛范围基本连成一片。由于城市人类活动的加剧各热岛等级斑块的形状更加复杂。在景观水平上的分析显示,2007年的热景观斑块类型多,在六环内的分布均匀,破碎化程度高,至2011年,景观斑块的蔓延度逐渐下降,低等级的热岛斑块优势度逐渐降低。研究结论可以为城市管理决策部门制定有效的热岛效应缓解措施提供理论依据。