Symbiotic interactions between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and male papaya plants: Its status,role and implications

Experiments were conducted to study the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) status and its role in P-uptake through assay of root phosphatases activities in four varieties of male Carica papaya L. viz. CO-1, CO-2, Honey Dew and Washington during flowering stages. In the present study, mean total root colonization of AM fungi recorded peak increase in flowering stage-II while mean root phosphatase (acid and alkaline) activities recorded peak increase in flowering stage-I. Unlike root colonization and root phosphatase activities, spore density did not exhibit any definite patterns and recorded a narrow range of fluctuation during different flowering stages of male C. papaya. The study brought out the fact that root colonization and spore density of AM fungi along with root phosphatase activities varied significantly within the four varieties of male C. papaya plants during each flowering stage. The study also recorded consistently higher acid root phosphatase activity than alkaline root phosphatase activity under P-deficient, acidic soil conditions during all flowering stages of male C. papaya plants. Studies revealed that the root colonization of AM fungi influenced root phosphatase activities (acid and alkaline) positively and significantly during all flowering stages of male C. papaya plants. A total of twelve species of AM fungi belonging to five genera viz. Acaulospora, Dentiscutata, Gigaspora, Glomus, and Racocetra were recovered from the rhizosphere of male C. papaya plants.     

Land-use change impact on mycorrhizal symbiosis in female and male plants of wild <Emphasis Type="Italic">Carica papaya</Emphasis> (Caricaceae)

It has been acknowledged that land-use change has negative effects on genetic diversity and sex ratio in dioecious species, but less attention has been paid on the influence that land-use change has on the biotic interactions, especially between dioecious species and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. AM mutualism involves reciprocal transfer of carbohydrates and mineral nutrients between the host plant’s roots and these fungi. Here, we report spatial and temporal variation in AM colonization in dioecious wild Carica papaya plants growing in sites with different land use intensity. We tagged, recorded the basal stem circumference and collected roots of reproductive female and male Carica papaya plants in three wild sites during dry and rainy seasons of western Mexico. We also collected soil samples in each site to conduct soil chemical analyses. The sexes of C. papaya did not show significant differences in the frequency (percentage of root colonized by intraradical fungal structures) and abundance (length of intraradical hyphae) of AM fungi but the higher AM colonization was observed during the dry season, and in the site with the lowest disturbance. There was no relationship between soil chemistry and AM colonization. Overall, our findings suggest that land-use intensity has a negative effect on AM colonization and we discuss the consequences of habitat loss for the reproductive female and male plants, the implications of decreasing AM colonization for wild Carica papaya plants an important species that provides a source of genetic variation for the C. papaya varieties.     

Sex‐specific interaction between arbuscular mycorrhizal and dark septate fungi in the dioecious plant Antennaria dioica (Asteraceae)

Male and female plants of dioecious species often differ in their resource demands and this has been linked to secondary sexual dimorphism, including sex‐specific interactions with other organisms such as herbivores and pollinators. However, little is known about the interaction between dioecious plants and fungal root endophytes. Plants may be simultaneously colonised by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and dark septate (DS) fungi. While it is well established that AM mutualism involves reciprocal transfer of photosynthates and mineral nutrients between roots of host plants and these fungi, the role of DS fungi remains controversial. Here, we report the temporal and spatial variation in AM and DS fungi in female, male and non‐reproductive Antennaria dioica plants in three natural populations in Finland during flowering and after seed production. Females had higher colonisation by AM fungi, but lower colonisation by DS fungi than male and non‐reproductive plants. The higher AM colonisation was observed during flowering, and this difference varied among populations. Our results suggest that females and males of A. dioica interact with AM and DS fungi differently and that this relationship is dependent on soil fertility.     

Dioecious species and arbuscular mycorrhizal symbioses: The case of Antennaria dioica

Sex-specific interactions with herbivores and pollinators have been observed in female and male plants of dioecious species. However, only a limited number of studies have revised sex-specific patterns in mycorrhizal symbiosis. To test whether female and male plants of Antennaria dioica differ in their relationship with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, we examined the temporal and spatial variation in AM fungi in female, male and non-reproductive A. dioica plants in three natural populations in Finland during flowering and after seed production. Our results are consistent with previous studies both under greenhouse and field conditions with the same species showing differences in AM colonization between the sexes linked with allocation to reproduction. Taken together, the results indicate that there is a sex-specific interaction between A. dioica and AM fungi. Overall, females have a greater investment in AM fungi, likely to enhance their uptake of soil nutrients and support the reproduction by seed.     

土著菌根真菌和混生植物对羊草生长和磷营养的影响

植物种间相互作用直接影响植物生长、根系可塑性及养分吸收,而与植物共生的丛枝菌根真菌可以改变植物个体和种间养分资源的分配,具有协调种间竞争的潜力.以我国北方草甸草原建群种羊草(Leymus chinensis)和混生植物紫花苜蓿(Medicago sativa)及独行菜(Lepidium spetalum)为供试植物,通过模拟盆栽试验,研究了土著菌根真菌和混生植物对羊草生长、根系形态及磷营养的影响.试验结果表明,土著菌根真菌能够与羊草及紫花苜蓿形成良好共生,而独行菜根内基本未形成菌根共生结构.土著菌根真菌显著降低了羊草及独行菜的生物量,但促进了紫花苜蓿的生长;混种紫花苜蓿显著促进了羊草的生长,而混种独行菜则显著抑制了羊草的生长.土著菌根真菌对羊草根系形态的影响表现出与植株生物量类似的趋势,但不同混生植物对羊草根系生长均无显著影响.土著菌根真菌和混生植物对羊草植株磷含量均无显著影响.与混生植物相比,羊草具有较高的比根长和磷吸收能力,这也解释了其负向菌根依赖性.研究证实了菌根真菌和植物种间相互作用均是影响草原优势植物生长和根系发育的重要因素,深入研究其交互作用对于科学管理草地生态系统,维持植物群落的稳定性和生态系统生产力具有重要意义.     

Nitrogen limitation impairs plant control over the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in response to phosphorus and shading in two European sand dune species

The symbiosis of plants with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may become parasitic if the cost:benefit ratio (carbon:phosphorus ratio) increases. In case of mycorrhizal parasitism, a plant may prevent growth depression through the reduction of root colonization as a form of control over the symbiosis. In this greenhouse study, we attempted to manipulate the cost:benefit ratio of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis by shading and/or phosphorus (P) fertilization in the differentially mycotrophic plant species Hieracium pilosella and Corynephorus canescens. By repeated sampling of soil cores, we assessed the temporal progress of plant investment towards mycorrhizal structures as a measure of plant control over the AMF. Unexpectedly, we found no obvious treatment effects on mycorrhizal growth dependency (MGD), most likely caused by constant N-limitation in AM plants being enhanced by P-fertilization and shade probably not exacerbating plant C-budget for AMF. This highlights the importance of N:P:C stoichiometry for the outcome of the symbiosis. Nevertheless, we found possible control mechanisms in shaded H. pilosella, with considerably higher resource investments into root than into hyphal growth, while root colonization was only marginally suppressed. This control only manifested after 4 weeks of growth under potentially detrimental conditions, emphasizing the importance of time in plant control over the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis. In contrast, the less mycotrophic C. canescens did not exhibit obvious changes in mycorrhizal investments in reaction to shading and P-fertilization, possibly because the low mycotrophy and AMF colonization already imposes a functioning control mechanism in this species. Our study suggests that highly mycotrophic plants may have a stronger need to keep AMF in check than less mycotrophic plants, which may have implications for the role of mycotrophy in the outcome of symbiotic interactions in natural situations.     

Phosphorus and Nitrogen Regulate Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Symbiosis in Petunia hybrida

Phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrient elements that are needed by plants in large amounts. The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and soil fungi improves phosphorus and nitrogen acquisition under limiting conditions. On the other hand, these nutrients influence root colonization by mycorrhizal fungi and symbiotic functioning. This represents a feedback mechanism that allows plants to control the fungal symbiont depending on nutrient requirements and supply. Elevated phosphorus supply has previously been shown to exert strong inhibition of arbuscular mycorrhizal development. Here, we address to what extent inhibition by phosphorus is influenced by other nutritional pathways in the interaction between Petunia hybrida and R. irregularis. We show that phosphorus and nitrogen are the major nutritional determinants of the interaction. Interestingly, the symbiosis-promoting effect of nitrogen starvation dominantly overruled the suppressive effect of high phosphorus nutrition onto arbuscular mycorrhiza, suggesting that plants promote the symbiosis as long as they are limited by one of the two major nutrients. Our results also show that in a given pair of symbiotic partners (Petunia hybrida and R. irregularis), the entire range from mutually symbiotic to parasitic can be observed depending on the nutritional conditions. Taken together, these results reveal complex nutritional feedback mechanisms in the control of root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi.     

Quality of rooting environments and patterns of root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in strangler figs in a Mexican palmetto woodland

Arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization in strangler figs, spore richness, and abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were quantified in epiphytic and ground-rooted trees in a Sabal palmetto woodland that had marked heterogeneity in rooting environments for hemiepiphytic plants. An inoculation experiment was performed to assess whether low spore density could limit mycorrhizal colonization. There was no significant difference in mycorrhizal colonization among Ficus species, but epiphytic plants in nutrient-rich rooting environments had less mycorrhizal colonization than ground-rooted plants in low-nutrient soils. However, richness and abundance of spores was low, and to some extent, this limited the mycorrhizal colonization of strangler figs. Nevertheless, our results suggest intraindividual adjusting levels of root colonization in strangler figs in accordance with mineral availability. Such responses could maximize the cost–benefit balance of arbuscular mycorrhizal interactions throughout the development of strangler figs from epiphytic young plants to ground-rooted trees.     

Greater mycorrhizal colonization of unisexual morphs than of hermaphroditic morphs of Jacaratia mexicana during flowering and fruiting in central Mexico

Different sexual morphs of dimorphic and trimorphic populations of plants have different demands for resources correlating with phenotypic and ecological dissimilarities among morphs. Few studies have investigated the variations in mycorrhizal symbiosis across the sexual morphs of trimorphic plant populations. Here, we report seasonal variations in the mycorrhizal colonization of the roots of female, male and hermaphroditic trees of Jacaratia mexicana under field conditions in central Mexico. Mycorrhizal colonization was low in the rainy season, when J. mexicana bears only leaves, but high in the dry season when it flowers and fruits. In the dry season, the mycorrhizal colonization of female and male trees was over twofold higher than that of the hermaphroditic trees, and all three morphs had low mycorrhizal colonization in the rainy season. The lack of seasonal variation in the mycorrhizal colonization of hermaphroditic trees, together with other available evidence, supports the idea that hermaphroditic trees of J. mexicana might have some physiological disadvantages compared with male and female trees.     

中国植物丛枝菌根侵染特征研究

丛枝菌根真菌在生态系统和植物生长过程中发挥着重要作用,目前对其生理生态功能的研究备受关注,但主要集中在丛枝菌根真菌对植物促生作用方面。植物的菌根侵染特征是表征真菌与植物共生紧密程度的重要标志,也是评价植物生态适应性的关键指标,然而针对我国植物丛枝菌根发育特征及其分布特点的系统性研究尚属空白。【目的】探究我国植物丛枝菌根真菌的侵染特征,及其在不同生态系统和气候区域中的分布规律,为推动丛枝菌根研究的发展提供基础数据。【方法】利用全球植物菌根数据库“FungalRoot”和605篇中文文献的植物菌根侵染特征数据,并补充生态系统、气候区域、植物类型和植物生长年限等共47 700组数据,建立了中国植物丛枝菌根侵染信息数据库,并以此为基础进行研究。【结果】我国植物丛枝菌根真菌侵染率在0-55%占69.7%,55%-100%占30.3%,绝大多数植物丛枝菌根真菌侵染强度、菌丝丰度、泡囊丰度和丛枝丰度均分布在40.0%以下。丛枝菌根共生形态中,A型占比最大,为56.3%。农田、荒漠、草地生态系统的植物丛枝菌根真菌侵染率相近,分别为51.8%、51.6%、51.8%,而森林生态系统的侵染率较低,为40.4%。荒漠生态系统植物的丛枝菌根真菌侵染强度、菌丝丰度、泡囊丰度和丛枝丰度最高,分别达到46.0%、47.1%、37.2%和31.2%。根据气候区域,植物的侵染水平由高到低排序为暖温带(53.3%)>热带(50.0%)>中温带(45.2%)>亚热带(42.2%)。草本植物的侵染水平高于木本植物,多年生植物高于一年生植物。木本植物中,灌木的侵染率水平最高,为46.3%,其次是乔木和藤本植物,均为43.9%。草本植物在侵染强度和菌丝丰度上高于木本植物,分别为30.2%和32.5%,而木本植物在泡囊和丛枝丰度方面具有优势,分别为19.5%和23.4%。我国丛枝菌根植物中,被子植物占据绝大多数,共有110科,占比达到90.2%,蕨类、裸子、石松门植物较少。【结论】我国大部分植物丛枝菌根真菌侵染率在55%以下,侵染特征等指标分布在40.0%以下;同时,不同生态系统、气候区域、植物类型和生长年限均会对侵染特征产生不同程度的影响。     

Sex-specific responses to mycorrhiza in a dioecious species

In most studies about dioecious plants, the role of arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) and the potential sex-specific differences between the plant hosts have been overlooked. Because plant sexes frequently differ in drought tolerance and AM fungal colonization provides higher resistance to drought, we investigated whether the relation of mycorrhizal fungi with either male or female Antennaria dioica plants differs using a factorial experiment. We hypothesized that because AM usually increase growth rate and male plants usually grow larger than females, males should gain more benefit from the mycorrhizal symbiosis in terms of mineral nutrition and water supply. Because of higher demands of carbohydrates (C) in males, we expected males to allocate less C resources to the mycorrhizal fungus so that the associated fungi should benefit less of the association with males. In contrast to our initial hypothesis, the male plants, although faster growing under drought, did not gain more symbiosis-mediated benefits than did the females, and both sexes seemed to provide resources equally to their fungal symbiont. Therefore, we conclude that the two plant sexual morphs provide equal amounts of C to their fungal root symbionts and that they can gain specific benefits from the symbiosis, which, however, depend on soil water availability.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal status and root phosphatase activities in vegetative <Emphasis Type="Italic">Carica papaya</Emphasis> L. varieties

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) status and root phosphatase activities were studied in four vegetative Carica papaya L. varieties viz., CO-1, CO-2, Honey Dew and Washington. Standard techniques were used to ascertain information on spore density and species diversity of AM fungi. Although in case of estimation of root colonization and root phosphatase activities, the existing methods were slightly modified. Root colonization and spore density of AM fungi along with root phosphatase (acid and alkaline) activities varied significantly in four papaya varieties. The present study recorded higher acid root phosphatase activity when compared with alkaline root phosphatase activity under P-deficient, acidic soil conditions. The present study revealed that the root colonization of AM fungi influenced acid root phosphatase activity positively and significantly under P-deficient, acidic soil conditions. A total of 11 species of AM fungi belonging to five genera viz., Acaulospora, Dentiscutata, Gigaspora, Glomus and Racocetra were recovered from the rhizosphere of four papaya varieties.     

Host genotype dependency and growth enhancing ability of VA-mycorrhizal fungi for Eleusine coracana (finger millet)

Inoculation of finger millet (Eleusine coracana Gaertn.) plants with one of six different vesicular, arbuscular, mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi increased plant biomass, height, leaf area and absolute growth rate; however, effectiveness of the various VAM fungi varied significantly. Maximum root colonization and mycorrhizal efficacy was observed with plants inoculated with Glomus caledonicum. Among five host genotypes tested for mycorrhizal dependency against G. caledonicum, genotype HR-374 gave the highest plant biomass, mycorrhizal efficacy and root colonization, the inoculation resulting in increased mineral (phosphate, nitrogen, Zn²⁺ and Cu²⁺) content and uptake in shoots.     

Grazing tolerance and mycorrhizal colonization: Effects of resource manipulation and plant size in biennial Gentianella campestris

As herbivory usually leads to loss of photosynthesizing biomass, its consequences for plants are often negative. However, in favorable conditions, effects of herbivory on plants may be neutral or even beneficial. According to the compensatory continuum hypothesis plants can tolerate herbivory best in resource-rich conditions. Besides herbivory, also primarily positive biotic interactions like mycorrhizal symbiosis, bear carbon costs. Tritrophic plant–fungus–herbivore interaction further complicates plant's cost-benefit balance, because herbivory of the host plant is expected to cause decline in mycorrhizal colonization under high availability of soil nutrients when benefits of symbiosis decline in relation to costs. To gain insight into above interactions we tested the effects of plant size and resource manipulation (simulated herbivory and fertilization) on both above-ground performance and on root fungal colonization of the biennial Gentianella campestris.Clipping caused allocation shift from height growth to branches in all groups except in large and fertilized plants. For large plants nutrient addition may have come too late, as the number of meristems was most likely determined already before the fertilization. Clipping decreased the amount of DSE (dark septate endophytic) fungi which generally are not considered to be mycorrhizal. The effect of clipping on total fungal colonization and colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal coils were found to depend on host size and resource level. Dissimilar mycorrhizal response to simulated herbivory in small vs. large plants could be due to more intensive light competition in case of small plants. Carbon limited small plants may not be able to maintain high mycorrhizal colonization, whereas large clipped plants allocate extra resources to roots and mycorrhizal fungi at the expense of above-ground parts. Our results suggest that herbivory may increase carbon limitation that leads re-growing shoots and fungal symbionts to function as competing sinks for the limited carbon reserves.     

The Co-occurrence and Morphological Continuum Between Ericoid Mycorrhiza and Dark Septate Endophytes in Roots of Six European Rhododendron Species

Ericaceae associate with a wide spectrum of root mycobionts, but the most common are ascomycetous ericoid mycorrhizal fungi and dark septate endophytes (DSE), followed by basidiomycetous fungi and glomeracean arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. We investigated distribution and morphological diversity of ericoid mycorrhizae (ErM), DSE associations, ectomycorrhizae (EcM) and arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) in hair roots of six European native Rhododendron species and found that i) while EcM and AM were absent, ErM and DSE associations were simultaneously present in all screened plants; ii) their levels were negatively correlated, suggesting Ericaceae preference for certain root-fungus association in certain habitats; iii) the highest ErM colonization occurred at sites in southern and central Europe, while the highest DSE colonization was found in a subarctic site in northern Finland and in a subalpine site in the Carpathians, suggesting a latitudinal/altitudinal shift in Ericaceae root-fungus associations; iv) some mycelia could simultaneously form structures corresponding to ErM and DSE association, which occasionally resulted in a unique ectendomycorrhizal colonization comprising an intercellular parenchymatous net and intracellular hyphal coils. These results indicate frequent interactions between ErM fungi and DSE in roots of European rhododendrons and a morphological continuum between ErM and DSE associations. The new ectendomycorrhizal type deserves further investigation.     

Sex-Related Responses of Populus cathayana Shoots and Roots to AM Fungi and Drought Stress

We investigated the impact of drought and arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi on the morphological structure and physiological function of shoots and roots of male and female seedlings of the dioecious plant Populus cathayana Rehder. Pot-grown seedlings were subjected to well watered or water-limiting conditions (drought) and were grown in soil that was either inoculated or not inoculated with the AM fungus Rhizophagus intraradices. No significant differences were found in the infection rates between the two sexes. Drought decreased root and shoot growth, biomass and root morphological characteristics, whereas superoxide radical (O₂–) and hydrogen peroxide content, peroxidase (POD) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration and proline content were significantly enhanced in both sexes. Male plants that formed an AM fungal symbiosis showed a significant increase in shoot and root morphological growth, increased proline content of leaves and roots, and increased POD activity in roots under both watering regimes; however, MDA concentration in the roots decreased. By contrast, AM fungi either had no effect or a slight negative effect on the shoot and root growth of female plants, with lower root biomass, total biomass and root/shoot ration under drought. In females, MDA concentration increased in leaves and roots under both watering regimes, and the proline content and POD activity of roots increased under drought conditions; however, POD activity significantly decreased under well-watered conditions. These findings suggest that AM fungi enhanced the tolerance of male plants to drought by improving shoot and root growth, biomass and the antioxidant system. Further investigation is needed to unravel the complex effects of AM fungi on the growth and antioxidant system of female plants.     

Diversity and Spatial Structure of Belowground Plant–Fungal Symbiosis in a Mixed Subtropical Forest of Ectomycorrhizal and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Plants

Plant–mycorrhizal fungal interactions are ubiquitous in forest ecosystems. While ectomycorrhizal plants and their fungi generally dominate temperate forests, arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis is common in the tropics. In subtropical regions, however, ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal plants co-occur at comparable abundances in single forests, presumably generating complex community structures of root-associated fungi. To reveal root-associated fungal community structure in a mixed forest of ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal plants, we conducted a massively-parallel pyrosequencing analysis, targeting fungi in the roots of 36 plant species that co-occur in a subtropical forest. In total, 580 fungal operational taxonomic units were detected, of which 132 and 58 were probably ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal, respectively. As expected, the composition of fungal symbionts differed between fagaceous (ectomycorrhizal) and non-fagaceous (possibly arbuscular mycorrhizal) plants. However, non-fagaceous plants were associated with not only arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi but also several clades of ectomycorrhizal (e.g., Russula) and root-endophytic ascomycete fungi. Many of the ectomycorrhizal and root-endophytic fungi were detected from both fagaceous and non-fagaceous plants in the community. Interestingly, ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were concurrently detected from tiny root fragments of non-fagaceous plants. The plant–fungal associations in the forest were spatially structured, and non-fagaceous plant roots hosted ectomycorrhizal fungi more often in the proximity of ectomycorrhizal plant roots. Overall, this study suggests that belowground plant–fungal symbiosis in subtropical forests is complex in that it includes “non-typical” plant–fungal combinations (e.g., ectomycorrhizal fungi on possibly arbuscular mycorrhizal plants) that do not fall within the conventional classification of mycorrhizal symbioses, and in that associations with multiple functional (or phylogenetic) groups of fungi are ubiquitous among plants. Moreover, ectomycorrhizal fungal symbionts of fagaceous plants may “invade” the roots of neighboring non-fagaceous plants, potentially influencing the interactions between non-fagaceous plants and their arbuscular-mycorrhizal fungal symbionts at a fine spatial scale.     

Induction of glycyrrhizin and total phenolic compound production in licorice by using arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi have mutualistic symbiosis with higher plants, increasing plant resistance to environmental stresses and nutrient uptake and improving soil. During arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis, a range of chemical and biological factors are affected. In this study, two species of arbuscular mycorrhiza (Glomus mosseae and G. intraradices) were used to assess the effects of inoculation on licorice growth and secondary metabolite production. After successful inoculation, the increase in the growth rate, P and Zn uptake, and the accumulation of secondary metabolites in licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra L.) roots were observed in two periods of 3 and 6 months compared to control. After 6 months, more increments in growth, secondary metabolites, and P and Zn uptake were observed compared with the first 3-months period. Two groups of secondary metabolites arising from phenolic and terpenoid metabolism obviously responded to mycorrhizal fungi colonization in licorice roots.     

Root endophyte symbiosis in vitro between the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Tricholoma matsutake and the arbuscular mycorrhizal plant Prunus speciosa

We previously reported that Tricholoma matsutake and Tricholoma fulvocastaneum, ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes that associate with Pinaceae and Fagaceae, respectively, in the Northern Hemisphere, could interact in vitro as a root endophyte of somatic plants of Cedrela odorata (Meliaceae), which naturally harbors arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in South America, to form a characteristic rhizospheric colony or “shiro”. We questioned whether this phenomenon could have occurred because of plant–microbe interactions between geographically separated species that never encounter one another in nature. In the present study, we document that these fungi formed root endophyte interactions and shiro within 140 days of inoculation with somatic plants of Prunus speciosa (=Cerasus speciosa, Rosaceae), a wild cherry tree that naturally harbors arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Japan. Compared with C. odorata, infected P. speciosa plants had less mycelial sheath surrounding the exodermis, and the older the roots, especially main roots, the more hyphae penetrated. In addition, a large number of juvenile roots were not associated with hyphae. We concluded that such root endophyte interactions were not events isolated to the interactions between exotic plants and microbes but could occur generally in vitro. Our pure culture system with a somatic plant allowed these fungi to express symbiosis-related phenotypes that varied with the plant host; these traits are innately programmed but suppressed in nature and could be useful in genetic analyses of plant–fungal symbiosis.     

Plant Kin Recognition Enhances Abundance of Symbiotic Microbial Partner

Background

The stability of cooperative interactions among different species can be compromised by cheating. In the plant-mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis, a single mycorrhizal network may interact with many plants, providing the opportunity for individual plants to cheat by obtaining nutrients from the fungi without donating carbon. Here we determine whether kin selection may favour plant investment in the mycorrhizal network, reducing the incentive to cheat when relatives interact with a single network.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We show that mycorrhizal network size and root colonization were greater when Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. was grown with siblings compared to strangers. Soil fungal abundance was positively correlated with group leaf nitrogen, and increased root colonization was associated with a reduced number of pathogen-induced root lesions, indicating greater benefit to plants grown with siblings.

Conclusions/Significance

Plants can benefit their relatives through investment in mycorrhizal fungi, and kin selection in plants could promote the persistence of the mycorrhizal symbiosis.