Ravens (Corvus corax corax L.) in the British landscape: a thousand years of ecological biogeography in place-names

Abstract Aim To investigate the information content of place‐names regarding the habits, habitat and biogeography of ravens in Britain over the past millennium. Location England, Scotland and Wales. Methods Linguistic and ecological analysis of over 400 British place‐names that have a putative ‘raven’ derivation. Results Most of the ‘raven’ place‐names are Old English in origin. Some of these (a minority), however, derive from personal names. The derivations of most names reflect landscape rather than man‐made features; the majority relating to high, craggy ground or coastal features, a minority to wooded situations or human habitations. In lowland Scotland and the Scottish borders the colloquial name corbie dominates ‘raven’ place‐names, perhaps reflecting French influence. In the Highlands and the Western Isles the Gaelic fitheach and its derivatives are predominant. Relatively fewer place‐names that have ‘raven’ roots have been educed in other parts of the Celtic West, i.e. Wales and Cornwall (only one traced in the latter). Main conclusions Comparison of the geographical distribution of ‘raven’‐derived place‐names with the present‐day distribution of the species in Britain reveals the extent of the contraction in the raven's range to the West over historical time, most notably during theprevious two centuries, associated with changed land‐management practices in particular.     

Gymnosporia thyrsiflora comb. nov. (Celastraceae), a correct name to replace G. graciliramula from southwest China

In ‘Flora of China’, the combination ‘Gymnosporia graciliramula (S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li) Q. R. Liu & Funston’ was proposed, but this name was not validly published in 2008 because the presumed basionym Maytenus graciliramula S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li was not published in 1979 as stated, but in 1981, contrary to Article 33.4 of ICBN. Meanwhile, two older names, M. thyrsiflora S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li and M. pseudoracemosa S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li, were listed as synonyms in conflict with article 52.3 of ICBN. In this article, we propose a new combination G. thyrsiflora (S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li) W. B. Yu & D. Z. Li that is the correct name when G. thyrsiflora, M. pseudoracemosa and M. graciliramula are treated as a single species in Gymnosporia.     

Typification of three names in Antirrhinum (Plantaginaceae: Antirrhineae)

Typification of the names Antirrhinum barrelieri Boreau, A. controversum Pau and A. litigiosum Pau (Antirrhineae, Plantaginaceae) is needed to clarify the use and concept of these three names. The origin of a misinterpretation of the name A. barrelieri, which conditioned the subsequent use of these three names, is discussed. The previous ‘lectotype’ of A. barrelieri designated by Rothmaler from a Barrelier's illustration is shown to be ineffective, being contrary to Art. 9.12 of the ICN, and therefore a lectotype is designated from a syntype preserved in the herbarium of the Muséum des sciences naturelles d'Angers (France) at ANG. The Pau's names A. controversum and A. litigiosum have not been typified before, and lectotypes are here designated from specimens preserved at P and MA, respectively. As a consequence, the name A. litigiosum should be treated as a later heterotypic synonym of A. barrelieri.     

The Music Indici: its authors, types and localities

The sixty new taxa described in Musci Indici are reviewed. As a result of validation of 54 of these by plates alone, authorities, original specimens and provenance of many have been widely misinterpreted. Evidence from published material, unpublished correspondence and herbarium material demonstrates that W. H. Harvey (1836) is the sole validating author of most of the names; three were validated by J. D. Hooker in 1837, and two names jointly by J. D. Hooker and Harvey in 1840. None was validated by W. J. Hooker, in the past often considered to be the author of some of the names. It is shown that Musci Indici names should be typified by lectotypes; recent typifications of four of the names by ‘holotypes’ and six out of eight published ‘lectotypes’ are untenable as the specimens selected were not original material studied by Harvey, and should be superseded by new lectotypes. Five specimens are selected as new lectotypes. Original material, mostly in Harvey's herbarium in TCD, is identified as most suitable for future lectotypification of the other names. Types for the three names based solely on Royle material are located in LIV and BM. Original Harvey material is also preserved in GL, but most of the Wallich collections in BM, E and elsewhere are not part of the original material. For Neckera blanda no suitable type specimen was located; the original published plate is selected as lectotype with a specimen in BM as a supporting ‘epitype’. Many of the original localities published in 1840 as ‘Nepal’ are shown to be erroneous. As far as possible these are corrected but for some taxa provenance remains doubtful. Twenty-two of the new names are shown not to have been based on material from Nepal; as a result ten species (Acanthorrhynchium papillatum, Brachythecium kamounense, Chaetomitriopsis glaucocarpa, Meiothecium microcarpum, Mitthyridium repens, Rozea fulva, Splachnobryum flaccidum, Sterophyllum radiculosum, Trichosteleum boschii and Trismegistia lancifolia) and Trismegistia lancifolia) are deleted from the Nepal checklist. Twenty-eight of the new species are considered to be reliably based on material from Nepal, and a further five doubtfully so. Rozea microcarpa Broth. is shown to be an synonym of R. fulva (Harv.) M. Fleisch. Past taxonomic confusion between Hypnum cordatum Harv. and Neckera cordata [Hook. ex] Harv. is untangled; the first is shown to be a synonym of Eurhynchium hians (Hedw.) Sande Lac. and the second is the basionym of Penzigiella cordata (Harv.) M. Fleisch.     

Cytotaxonomy of the Prosimulium (Diptera: Simuliidae) of Western Asia

Chromosomal analysis of more than 500 larval black flies from 19 sites in Armenia and Turkey revealed five taxa in the Prosimulium hirtipes group: Prosimulium frontatum Terteryan, Prosimulium rachiliense Djafarov cytoform ‘A,’ P. rachiliense Djafarov cytoform ‘B,’ Prosimulium tomosvaryi (Enderlein), and a new species of Prosimulium. To associate the names rufipes (Meigen) and tomosvaryi with cytological entities, larvae from the respective type localities in Germany were characterized chromosomally. Prosimulium frontatum is restricted to the Caucasus Mountains where studied populations have five unique inversions. It is most closely related to cytoforms ‘A’ and ‘B’ of P. rachiliense, the three taxa sharing one unique inversion. The two cytoforms of P. rachiliense are separated by about 1200 km, obscuring decisions about their reproductive isolation. The names rachiliense and possibly pronevitschae Rubtsov apply to cytoform ‘A’ in Armenia, whereas the name fulvipes (Edwards) might apply to cytoform ‘B’ in Turkey and to material formerly identified in Turkey as P. rufipes. Populations of P. tomosvaryi in Armenia are chromosomally distinct from previously studied populations in Europe and Morocco, although tied to European and Turkish populations by a shared X‐linked inversion. We conservatively view Armenian, European, and Turkish populations of P. tomosvaryi as a single, polymorphic species. A new species, chromosomally related to P. hirtipes (Fries) and P. tomosvaryi by two uniquely shared inversions, was discovered in Turkey. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London     

Species names and metaphyly: a case study in Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Euthyneura, Nudibranchia, Doridina)

Dayrat, B. & Gosliner, T. M. (2005). Species names and metaphyly: a case study in Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Euthyneura, Nudibranchia, Doridina) —Zoologica Scripta, **, ***–***. Absence of resolution in phylogenetic trees, or metaphyly, is a common phenomenon. It mainly results from the fact that each data set has its own limit and can hardly be expected to reconstruct alone an entire hierarchy. Because metaphyly helps point out which regions of a tree merit further investigation, one should not avoid metaphyly but rather should try to detect it by addressing carefully node reliability. In this paper we explore the implication of metaphyly for species names. We present a phylogenetic analysis of Discodorididae (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Nudibranchia, Doridina), with an emphasis on relationships among species of Discodoris and its traditionally close ‘allies’ such as Peltodoris and Anisodoris. We demonstrate that some species must be transferred to different discodoridid subclades with which they share synapomorphies, but that many species form a metaphyletic group at the base of Discodorididae, and therefore cannot be placed in any taxon of genus level. We demonstrate that the current International Code of Zoological Nomenclature does not allow taxonomists to handle this situation because it requires selecting a taxon name of genus rank for every species binomial. Then we evaluate the results provided by new forms of species names, both in a rank‐based system, such as the current nomenclature, and a rank‐free system. All solutions considered would cause radical changes to the ‘spirit’ of the current ICZN (and, by extension, to the other current codes). In a rank‐free system of nomenclature, such as the PhyloCode, the best result is obtained with an epithet‐based form that does not mention supra‐specific relationships. Under this method, official species names would take the form ‘boholiensis Bergh, 1877’, although page numbers and letters can be added for uniqueness purposes. Taxonomists would then be free to add supra‐specific taxon names in ‘common’ species names, such as Discodorididae boholiensis Bergh, 1877 or simply Discodorididae boholiensis. Here we wish to stimulate discussion of a problem that we believe merits wide debate: absence of resolution in phylogenetic reconstruction and its impact on species nomenclature.     

UNRAVELLING THE ENIGMA OF BACKHOUSE'S WISTERIA: A TWISTED TALE OF TWO TWINERS

In this paper the plant described by James Backhouse in Australia and sent by him to England as a species of Wisteria Nutt. is revealed to be a member of the Australasian genus Callerya Endl. The plant named in memory of Backhouse, however, is shown to be a dark flowered cultivar of the North American Wisteria frutescens (L.) Poir. described as W. frutescens var. backhousiana André.     

Valid publication of the name Callicarpa peichieniana (Lamiaceae)

‘Callicarpa peichieniana W. Y. Chun & S. L. Chen ex W. Z. Fang’ is a replacement name for Premna peii W. Y. Chun ex H. T. Chang. However, this replacement name was not validly published in 1982 by W. Z. Fang because the reference citation of the replaced synonym P. peii that was published in 1960 was contrary to Article 33.4 of ICBN. The first publication of Premna peii in 1960 was invalid due to lack of type indication, in conflict with Article 37.1, and it was subsequently validated in 1963. In this study, we correct the place of valid publication of P. peii, thereby validating C. peichieniana W. Y. Chun & S. L. Chen ex H. Ma & W. B. Yu.     

THE ENGLISH NAMES OF THE AFROTROPICAL NIGHTJARS (CAPRIMULGIDAE)

Jackson, H. D. 1993. The English names of the Afrotropical nightjars (Caprimulgidae). Ostrich 64: 148–159.

At least 172 different English names have been used on the nightjars of Africa and its related islands, including Madagascar. A review of the literature chronicles the name changes within each species. Problems created by some duplication and transposition of names between species are discussed. A key to all the names is provided by an alphabetical list cross referenced to the species concerned. The orthography of names is discussed and it is recommended that all animal names be capitalized and freed of unnecessary hyphens. The nightjar names used in The Birds of Africa are accepted as the standard to be followed subject to a few changes.     

Ostrich,Southern Ostrich or Common Ostrich? The ‘eternal vexed question’ of English bird names and name changes in southern Africa through eight editions of Roberts field guides, 1940–2016

A set of stable simple common bird names helps non-ornithologist birders, who contribute to conservation by visiting protected areas and participating in citizen science projects. Changes in English bird names have caused discomfort in the local birding community, especially those that followed international standardisation of common bird names between 2000 and 2005. To understand the extent and nature of English bird name changes, an analysis was done of all southern African bird names through the eight editions of Roberts Birds of South/Southern Africa field guides published from 1940 to 2016. Of 813 species listed in both the first and the latest of the field guides, 453 (55.7%) had their names changed, among which 108 (13.3%) had changes in both the group name and the species epithet. The greatest single wave of changes (31.4%) occurred in the first ‘Roberts bird guide’ (the seventh field guide) in 2007, following international standardisation. Mean word and syllable counts of bird names also increased significantly in that edition. Name changes were associated with new authorships, taxonomic changes and use of geographic species epithets. There was a trend towards name stability for southern African endemic species. Further name changes should be kept to a minimum, shortening and simplifying wherever possible.     

THE EFFECT OF THE INTERACTION OF TEMPERATURE WITH AFTER-RIPENING REQUIREMENT AND COMPENSATING TEMPERATURE ON GERMINATION OF SEED OF FIVE SPECIES OF ROSA

Seeds of 5 rose species, Rosa multiflora Thunb. ‘Cathayensis,’ R. × reversa Waldst. & Kit., R. setigera Michx. ‘Beltsville,’ R. setigera Michx. ‘Serena,’ and R. wichuraiana Crepin, varied in after-ripening requirement from 30 days at 4.4 C for R. multiflora to 90 days for R. setigera ‘Serena.’ The compensating temperature varied from near 12.8 C for R. × reversa to a value near 29.4 C for R. setigera ‘Beltsville.’ In this report compensating temperature is used to describe that temperature at which mature, moist seed does not germinate, after-ripening does not take place, and dormancy does not change. Seed germination was reduced by interruption of the after-ripening period with intervals at temperatures above the compensating temperature. The interruptions were more effective in reducing germination when more frequent and when the temperature during the interval was higher. Species differed in their sensitivity to high-temperature reduction of germination. Those having the longest after-ripening requirement were most sensitive. Germination of seeds which had the minimum after-ripening treatment was repressed more by high temperature than germination of those seeds which had an excess of after-ripening. The decrease in germination resulted from imposition of a secondary dormancy of the embryo, and probably also from reversal of the after-ripening effect upon the primary dormancy imposed by the seed coat.     

The taxonomy of the endemic golden palm civet of Sri Lanka

Two species of palm civet are currently known from Sri Lanka: the widespread common species, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus (Pallas, 1777), and the endemic golden species, Paradoxurus zeylonensis (Pallas, 1778). The latter has two ‘morphs’, one golden and one dark brown, both of which are recorded from all three major biotic zones in Sri Lanka (wet zone, dry zone, and cloud forest). We have examined specimens of both ‘morphs’ from all zones, and conclude that there are actually several species involved: names are available for two of them, we describe a third as a new species, and we draw attention to a probable fourth species, based on two distinctive specimens, the provenance of which are unfortunately unknown. The name zeylonensis probably does not apply to a golden palm civet at all. © 2009 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 155 , 238–251.     

THE ENIGMA OF PLEIONE ‘FRANK KINGDON WARD’

Pleione ‘Frank Kingdon Ward’ first appeared in collections in the 1950s and has persisted. It has been considered to be a form of the spring flowered Pleione humilis but cytological examination shows it to be a triploid hybrid. Its identity is examined here and a formal hybrid name is proposed for it.     

Land Tenure and Naming Systems in Aboriginal Australia

Naming systems play a prominent role in discussions of land tenure by Aboriginal people. Reference to one area of land and its owners is most commonly in terms of name ‘X’, whereas reference to another area of land and its owners is most commonly made in terms of name ‘Y’. Much of the analytical literature examines how these names refer to groups of people. There is considerable dispute as to whether the reference of these names suffices to determine disjoint groupings of owners that can be described by the term ‘clan’. This paper proposes that the analysis of linkages between names and areas of land should have priority over the analysis of linkages between names and groups of people. The evidence shows that the attachment of names to areas of land is more stable and consistent than their attachment to groups of people. There are differences in the ways that names attach to the landscape, and these differences are significant—they determine whether or not more than one name from the same system may be attached to an area of land. This paper focuses on two areas of Australia: the northern Kakadu‐Oenpelli area and the Timber Creek area (both in the Northern Territory). It shows that naming systems identify disjunctive areas of land as the targets for claims of primary ownership in both areas. These disjunctive areas may reasonably be described with the translation term ‘estates’. In the northern Kakadu‐Oenpelli area, corresponding to these estates, there are disjunctive groupings of owners, which may be termed ‘clans’. However, groupings of owners are not clearly disjunctive in the Timber Creek area, and there is little motivation for using the term ‘clan’. This paper proposes that this difference reflects a general pattern in Aboriginal Australia, with naming systems stably and consistently identifying ‘estates’ across much of the continent. They do not identify ‘clans’ with equivalent stability and consistency.     

Convergent camouflage and the non‐monophyly of ‘seadragons’ (Syngnathidae: Teleostei): suggestions for a revised taxonomy of syngnathids

Wilson, N. G. & Rouse, G. W. (2010). Convergent camouflage and the non‐monophyly of ‘seadragons’ (Syngnathidae: Teleostei): suggestions for a revised taxonomy of syngnathids. —Zoologica Scripta, 39, 551–558. The phylogeny and classification of the charismatic Syngnathidae (e.g. pipefish, seahorses) has not been comprehensively examined to date. In particular, we assessed morphological hypotheses that previously suggested the three ‘seadragon’ genera (Phycodurus, Phyllopteryx, Haliichthys) do not form a monophyletic group. We used three mitochondrial markers to investigate evolutionary relationships within Syngnathidae, and demonstrated that Phycodurus + Phyllopteryx formed a clade that excluded Haliichthys, indicating the elaborate appendages used for camouflage have evolved independently. A time‐calibrated tree revealed the divergence of true seadragons as coincident with other kelp‐associated fauna. We found evidence for the resurrection of neglected subfamily names, and recovered Doryrhampinae, Nerophinae, Soleganthinae, Phyllopteryginae, Sygnathoidinae and Haliichthyinae as clades. Even after removing these groups from what is currently recognized as Syngnathinae, we showed that the remaining members of Syngnathinae are not monophyletic. In the light of this information, some conclusions about the diversity of reproductive strategies found within ‘Syngnathinae’ need to be re‐examined and further revision of syngnathid classification is needed.     

Deciduous premolars of Eocene Equidae and their phylogenetic significance

Abstract

The deciduous premolars of early Eocene Equidae from North America, conventionally attributed to ‘Hyracotherium’, are described and compared, based primarily on a sample of >60 specimens from the early Eocene Willwood Formation of the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. The sample represents six to nine species assigned to multiple genera by some other authors, but in the absence of diagnostic characters of the deciduous dentition, species assignments remain ambiguous for most specimens. Consequently it is not clear which generic names should be applied, and we employ the widespread name ‘Hyracotherium’ (acknowledging that the type species may not be an equid). We observed considerable variation in our sample, but most differences are minor and are largely inconsistent with respect to time or taxa, hindering attempts to characterise deciduous premolar anatomy of particular species. Comparisons were also made to Bridgerian Orohippus and Uintan Epihippus, to other early perissodactyls, and to non-perissodactyls that have been considered close to the origin of Perissodactyla (phenacodontid condylarths and Cambaytherium). Based on these comparisons, we confirm Butler’s observation that the deciduous premolars of equids show increasing molarization and lophodonty through the Eocene. However, our evidence suggests that there was little directed change through most of the Wasatchian until Wa-7.     

Character state‐based taxa erected to accommodate fossil and extant needle stoneflies (Leuctridae – Leuctrida tax.n.) and close relatives

In order to accommodate a newly discovered fossil specimen related to a subset of extant needle stoneflies (Leuctridae sensu Zwick, 2000), we provide a comparative analysis of the wing venation of these insects, and of their close relatives, primarily based on extant material. A number of character states potentially supporting monophyletic taxa are identified, and are used to erect taxon names under the cladotypic nomenclatural procedure. We introduce a new standard definition in which the mention of the antonym of the defining character state is applied. The proposed taxa, and taxa inclusiveness, are as follows: Nemouromorpha > Capniida/Leuctrida/‘Nemouridae s.l.’, and Leuctrida > Exeleuctrida > Mioleuctrida & Eleuctrida > Collaleuctrida. This scheme allowed us to tentatively accommodate several fossil species described earlier and the new specimen, left undetermined at the genus and species levels, but assigned to Collaleuctrida. To optimize retrieval of hierarchical information, we introduce the use of ‘nec’ (Latin for ‘but not’) into the taxonomic address to indicate exclusion from a taxon. For example, Mioleuctrida nec Collaleuctrida ?yehae indicates that ?yehae can be assigned to Mioleuctrida but can also be conclusively excluded from Collaleuctrida. Based on the investigated case, it is finally argued that the cladotypic nomenclatural procedure is optimal regarding name use and numbers, and allows adequate treatment of homoplasy.