Redox regulation of homocysteine-dependent glutathione synthesis

In certain tissues, glutathione biosynthesis is connected to methionine metabolism via the trans-sulfuration pathway. The latter condenses homocysteine and serine to cystathionine in a reaction catalyzed by cystathionine beta-synthase followed by cleavage of cystathionine to cysteine and alpha-ketoglutarate by gamma-cystathionase. Cysteine is the limiting amino acid in glutathione biosynthesis, and studies in our laboratory have shown that approximately 50% of the cysteine in glutathione is derived from homocysteine in human liver cells. In this study, we have examined the effect of pro- and antioxidants on the flux of homocysteine through the trans-sulfuration pathway in the human hepatoma cell line, HepG2. Our studies reveal that pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate and butylated hydroxyanisole enhance the flux of homocysteine through the trans-sulfuration pathway as has been observed previously with the pro-oxidants, H(2)O(2) and tertiary butyl hydroperoxide. In contrast, antioxidants such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and a water-soluble derivative of vitamin E elicit the opposite effect and result in diminished flux of homocysteine through the trans-sulfuration pathway. These studies provide the first evidence for the reciprocal sensitivity of the trans-sulfuration pathway to pro- and antioxidants, and demonstrate that the upstream half of the glutathione biosynthetic pathway (i.e. leading to cysteine biosynthesis) is redox sensitive as is the regulation of the well-studied enzymes in the downstream half (leading from cysteine to glutathione), namely, gamma-glutamyl-cysteine ligase and glutathione synthetase.     

Redox regulation of the mitochondrial K(ATP) channel in cardioprotection

The mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channel (mK(ATP)) is important in the protective mechanism of ischemic preconditioning (IPC). The channel is reportedly sensitive to reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and the aim of this study was to compare such species in parallel, to build a more comprehensive picture of mK(ATP) regulation. mK(ATP) activity was measured by both osmotic swelling and Tl(+) flux assays, in isolated rat heart mitochondria. An isolated adult rat cardiomyocyte model of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury was also used to determine the role of mK(ATP) in cardioprotection by nitroxyl. Key findings were as follows: (i) mK(ATP) was activated by O(2)(-) and H(2)O(2) but not other peroxides. (ii) mK(ATP) was inhibited by NADPH. (iii) mK(ATP) was activated by S-nitrosothiols, nitroxyl, and nitrolinoleate. The latter two species also inhibited mitochondrial complex II. (iv) Nitroxyl protected cardiomyocytes against IR injury in an mK(ATP)-dependent manner. Overall, these results suggest that the mK(ATP) channel is activated by specific reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and inhibited by NADPH. The redox modulation of mK(ATP) may be an underlying mechanism for its regulation in the context of IPC. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mitochondria and Cardioprotection.     

Redox regulation of vascular prostanoid synthesis by the nitric oxide-superoxide system

Oxygen is involved in cell signaling through oxygenases and oxidases and this applies especially for the vascular system. Nitric oxide (*NO) and epoxyarachidonic acids are P450-dependent monooxygenase products and prostacyclin is formed via cyclooxygenase and a heme-thiolate isomerase. The corresponding vasorelaxant mechanisms are counteracted by superoxide which not only traps *NO but through the resulting peroxynitrite blocks prostacyclin synthase by nitration of an active site tyrosine residue. In a model of septic shock, this leads to vessel constriction by activation of the thromboxane A2-prostaglandin endoperoxide H2 receptor. This sequence of events is part of endothelial dysfunction in which the activated vascular smooth muscle counteracts and regenerates vessel tone by cyclooxygenase-2-dependent prostacyclin synthesis. Peroxynitrite was found to activate cyclooxygenases by providing the peroxide tone at nanomolar concentrations. Such new insights into the control of vascular function have allowed us to postulate a concept of redox regulation in which a progressive increase of superoxide production by NADPH-oxidase, mitochondria, xanthine oxidase, and even uncoupled NO-synthase triggers a network of signals originating from an interaction of *NO with superoxide.     

Neuronal cell surface ATP synthase mediates synthesis of extracellular ATP and regulation of intracellular pH

The ATP synthase is known to play important roles in ATP generation and proton translocation within mitochondria. Here, we now provide evidence showing the presence of functional ecto‐ATP synthase on the neuronal surface. Immunoblotting revealed that the α, β subunits of ATP synthase F₁ portion are present in isolated fractions of plasma membrane and biotin‐labelled surface protein from primary cultured neurons; the surface distribution of α, β subunits was also confirmed by immunofluorescence staining. Moreover, α and β subunits were also found in fractions of plasma membrane and lipid rafts isolated from rat brain, and flow cytometry analysis showed α subunits on the surface of acutely isolated brain cells. Activity assays showed that the extracellular ATP generation of cultured neurons could be compromised by α, β subunit antibodies and ATP synthase inhibitors. pH_i (intracellular pH) analysis demonstrated that at low extracellular pH, α or β subunit antibodies decreased pH_i of primary cultured neurons. Therefore, ATP synthase on the surface of neurons may be involved in the machineries of extracellular ATP generation and pH_i homoeostasis.     

Redox regulation of copper-metallothionein

Copper (Cu) is an essential element whose localization within cells must be carefully controlled to avoid Cu-dependent redox cycling. Metallothioneins (MTs) are cysteine-rich metal-binding proteins that exert cytoprotective effects during metal exposure and oxidative stress. The specific role of MTs, however, in modulating Cu-dependent redox cycling remains unresolved. Our studies utilized a chemically defined model system to study MT modulation of Cu-dependent redox cycling under reducing (Cu/ascorbate) and mild oxidizing (Cu/ascorbate + H2O2) conditions. In the presence of Cu and ascorbate, MT blocked Cu-dependent lipid oxidation and ascorbyl radical formation with a stoichiometry corresponding to Cu/MT ratios 相似文献   

Redox regulation of RhoA

We have previously shown that redox agents including superoxide anion radical and nitrogen dioxide can react with GXXXXGK(S/T)C motif-containing GTPases (i.e., Rac1, Cdc42, and RhoA) to stimulate guanine nucleotide release. We now show that the reaction of RhoA with redox agents leads to different functional consequences from that of Rac1 and Cdc42 due to the presence of an additional cysteine (GXXXCGK(S/T)C) in the RhoA redox-active motif. While reaction of redox agents with RhoA stimulates guanine nucleotide dissociation, RhoA is subsequently inactivated through formation of an intramolecular disulfide that prevents guanine nucleotide binding thereby causing RhoA inactivation. Thus, redox agents may function to downregulate RhoA activity under conditions that stimulate Rac1 and Cdc42 activity. The opposing functions of these GTPases may be due in part to their differential redox regulation. In addition, the results presented herein suggest that the platinated-chemotherapeutic agent, cisplatin, which is known for targeting nucleic acids, reacts with RhoA to produce a RhoA thiol-cisplatin-thiol adduct, leading to inactivation of RhoA. Similarly, certain arsenic complexes (i.e., arsenate and arsenic trioxide) may inactivate RhoA by bridging the cysteine residues in the GXXXCGK(S/T)C motif. Thus, in addition to redox agents, platinated-chemotherapeutic agents and arsenic complexes may modulate the activity of GTPases containing the GXXXCGK(S/T)C motif (i.e., RhoA and RhoB).     

ATP调控策略及其在微生物代谢产物合成中的应用

辅因子工程是代谢工程的一个新兴分支领域,主要通过直接调控细胞内关键酶的辅因子,如ATP/ADP、NADH/NAD+、NADPH/NADP+等的浓度和形式来实现代谢流的最大化,快速地将物质流导向目标代谢物。ATP作为一种重要辅因子参与微生物细胞内大量的酶催化反应,将物质代谢途径串联或并联成复杂的网络体系,最终使得物质代谢流的分配受到牵制。因此ATP调控策略有望成为微生物菌株改造的有利工具,用于提高目标代谢物的浓度和生产能力,强化微生物对于环境的耐受以及促进底物利用等。文中将重点论述目前常用的有效ATP调控策略以及ATP调控对于细胞代谢的影响,以期为微生物细胞工厂的高效构建提供参考。     

Redox regulation of chloroplast metabolism

Regulation of enzyme activity based on thiol-disulfide exchange is a regulatory mechanism in which the protein disulfide reductase activity of thioredoxins (TRXs) plays a central role. Plant chloroplasts are equipped with a complex set of up to 20 TRXs and TRX-like proteins, the activity of which is supported by reducing power provided by photosynthetically reduced ferredoxin (FDX) with the participation of a FDX-dependent TRX reductase (FTR). Therefore, the FDX–FTR–TRXs pathway allows the regulation of redox-sensitive chloroplast enzymes in response to light. In addition, chloroplasts contain an NADPH-dependent redox system, termed NTRC, which allows the use of NADPH in the redox network of these organelles. Genetic approaches using mutants of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) in combination with biochemical and physiological studies have shown that both redox systems, NTRC and FDX-FTR-TRXs, participate in fine-tuning chloroplast performance in response to changes in light intensity. Moreover, these studies revealed the participation of 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (2-Cys PRX), a thiol-dependent peroxidase, in the control of the reducing activity of chloroplast TRXs as well as in the rapid oxidation of stromal enzymes upon darkness. In this review, we provide an update on recent findings regarding the redox regulatory network of plant chloroplasts, focusing on the functional relationship of 2-Cys PRXs with NTRC and the FDX–FTR–TRXs redox systems for fine-tuning chloroplast performance in response to changes in light intensity and darkness. Finally, we consider redox regulation as an additional layer of control of the signaling function of the chloroplast.

Thiol-dependent redox regulatory and antioxidant systems act concertedly to modulate chloroplast metabolism and signaling function.

Advances

• Plant chloroplasts harbor a complex redox network composed of the FDX–FTR–TRXs pathway, linking redox regulation to light, and NTRC, an NADPH-dependent system required for the activity of TRXs. Both systems adjust chloroplast performance to environmental cues.
• A relevant function of NTRC is redox control of 2-Cys PRXs, which maintains the reductive activity of chloroplast TRXs in the light. The NTRC–2-Cys PRXs redox system helps fine-tune the redox state of chloroplast enzymes thereby adjusting photosynthetic performance to changes in light.
• 2-Cys PRXs participate in the rapid oxidative inactivation of chloroplast enzymes in the dark, mediating the transfer of reducing equivalents from reduced enzymes, via TRXs, to hydrogen peroxide.
• Involvement of redox regulation in chloroplast retrograde signaling modulates early stages of plant development and response to environmental stress.

     

Redox regulation of Ran GTPase

Ran, a small Ras-like GTP-binding nuclear protein, plays a key role in modulation of various cellular signaling events including the cell cycle. This study shows that a cellular redox agent (nitrogen dioxide) facilitates Ran guanine nucleotide dissociation, and identifies a unique Ran redox architecture involved in that process. Sequence analysis suggests that Dexras1 and Rhes GTPases also possess the Ran redox architecture. As Ran releases an intact nucleotide, the redox regulation mechanism of Ran is likely to differ from the radical-based guanine nucleotide modification mechanism suggested for Ras and Rho GTPases. These results provide a mechanistic reason for the previously observed oxidative stress-induced perturbation of the Ran-mediated nuclear import, and suggest that oxidative stress could be a factor in the regulation of cell signal transduction pathways associated with Ran.     

Redox regulation of protein-tyrosine phosphatases

The protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) form a large family of signaling proteins with essential functions in embryonic development and adult physiology. The PTPs are characterized by an absolutely conserved catalytic site cysteine with a low pK_a due to its microenvironment, making it vulnerable to oxidation. PTPs are differentially oxidized and inactivated in vitro and in living cells. Many cellular stimuli induce a shift in the cellular redox state towards oxidation and evidence is accumulating that at least part of the cellular responses to these stimuli are due to specific, transient inactivation of PTPs, indicating that PTPs are important sensors of the cellular redox state.     

Redox regulation of intercellular transport

Plant cells communicate with each other via plasmodesmata (PDs) in order to orchestrate specific responses to environmental and developmental cues. At the same time, environmental signals regulate this communication by promoting changes in PD structure that modify symplastic permeability and, in extreme cases, isolate damaged cells. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are key messengers in plant responses to a range of biotic and abiotic stresses. They are also generated during normal metabolism, and mediate signaling pathways that modulate plant growth and developmental transitions. Recent research has suggested the participation of ROS in the regulation of PD transport. The study of several developmental and stress-induced processes revealed a co-regulation of ROS and callose (a cell wall polymer that regulates molecular flux through PDs). The identification of Arabidopsis mutants simultaneously affected in cell redox homeostasis and PD transport, and the histological detection of hydrogen peroxide and peroxidases in the PDs of the tomato vascular cambium provide new information in support of this novel regulatory mechanism. Here, we describe the evidence that supports a role for ROS in the regulation of callose deposition and/or in the formation of secondary PD, and discuss the potential importance of this mechanism during plant growth or defense against environmental stresses.