Owned and Unowned Dog Population Estimation,Dog Management and Dog Bites to Inform Rabies Prevention and Response on Lombok Island,Indonesia

Although Indonesia has been rabies-infected since at least the 1880s, some islands remain rabies-free, such as Lombok. However, due to its adjacency to rabies-infected islands such as Bali and Flores, there is considerable risk of a rabies incursion. As part of a rabies risk assessment project, surveys were conducted to estimate the size of the dog population and to describe dog management practices of households belonging to different ethnic groups. A photographic-recapture method was employed and the number of unowned dogs was estimated. A total of 400 dog owning households were interviewed, 300 at an urban site and 100 at a rural site. The majority of the interviewed households belonged to the Balinese ethnic group. Owned dogs were more likely male, and non-pedigree or local breed. These households kept their dogs either fully restricted, semi-free roaming or free-roaming but full restriction was reported only at the urban site. Dog bite cases were reported to be higher at the urban site, and commonly affected children/young adults to 20 years old and males. A higher number of unowned dogs was observed at the urban site than at the rural site. Data generated within these surveys can inform rabies risk assessment models to quantify the probability of rabies being released into Lombok and resulting in the infection of the local dog population. The information gained is critical for efforts to educate dog owners about rabies, as a component of preparedness to prevent the establishment of rabies should an incursion occur.     

Knowledge of the welfare of nonhuman animals and prevalence of dog care practices in New Providence, The Bahamas

Interviews with 509 adults in New Providence, The Bahamas, indicated that people have limited knowledge of dog care and the laws pertaining to nonhuman animal welfare. Interviews also indicated that many dogs received care limited only to food and water and--to a lesser extent--shelter. Potcakes (local mongrels) received the least health care; "breed" dogs, the most. Primary caregivers gave the impression that dogs were better cared for than did nonprimary caregivers. Although some educational messages must distinguish between those who do--and do not--live in dog-keeping households, others need not. For example, myths associated with neutering are more deeply entrenched in the general population than within members of dog-keeping households. However, all respondents had an inadequate knowledge of the law relating to dog care.     

Reactions of American tourists to roaming dogs in New Providence,The Bahamas

Abstract

The Bahamas suffers from nuisances caused by roaming dogs. Although Bahamians tolerate their presence, in an economy which is dependent upon tourism, the reactions of tourists to roaming dogs is of great consequence. This study reports the reactions of 439 American tourists concerning roaming dogs in New Providence. Forty-five percent of the tourists saw roaming dogs, and of these, 40% reported that they felt “no reaction” to the dogs. However, 3% of the tourists were actually bothered by the dogs, and for 8% the sight of them changed the tourists' view of The Bahamas. Ten percent of tourists would not like to see animal control officers at work even though 23% thought The Bahamas has a roaming dog “problem.” Overall, it appears that while roaming dogs are seen by many tourists, only a small number are particularly upset by them. However, the general reaction to the dogs is unfavorable. About 1% of the tourists appeared to have been particularly upset by the roaming dogs, but 97% said that they would either return to the Bahamas again or recommend it to their friends/relations.     

Fecundity and longevity of roaming dogs in Jaipur,India

Background

Estimates of demographic parameters, such as age-specific survival and fecundity, age at first pregnancy and litter size, are required for roaming dogs (i.e. dogs that are neither confined nor restricted) to assess the likely effect of proposed methods of population control. Data resulting from individual identification of dogs spayed as part of an Animal Birth Control (ABC) programme in Jaipur, India, are used to derive such parameters for the roaming dog population of that city.

Results

The percentage of females becoming pregnant in any given year was estimated by inspection of over 25,000 females caught for spaying from 1995 to 2006. The point estimate is 47.5% with a 95% confidence interval from 44% to 51%. Adult annual survival of spayed females was estimated by recapture of 62 spayed females from 2002 to 2006. The point estimate is 0.70 (95% confidence interval from 0.62 to 0.78), corresponding to an expected total lifespan of 3.8 years for a spayed female at one year old.

Conclusion

Recording the pregnancy status of dogs collected for spaying and individual marking of dogs released following spaying can provide estimates of some of the demographic parameters essential for predicting the future effectiveness of an ABC programme. Further, we suggest that recording the number and location of spayed and unspayed dogs encountered by the catching teams could be the most effective way to monitor the size and composition of the roaming dog population.

     

Characteristics of owned dogs on the island of New Providence, The Bahamas

This study reports the findings from street interviews on owned dogs (N = 442) in New Providence, The Bahamas. Many households kept dogs outside, and roughly 43% of households allowed at least 1 dog to roam. Dogs kept inside most likely were considered a companion, whereas dogs used for security were kept outside. With 36.1% of the dog population neutered and 4.4 puppies per litter surviving to breeding age (6 months), the population continues to produce more dogs than are required just to maintain its numbers. Potcakes, the local mongrel, followed by pit bulls, were the most commonly kept dogs. Comparison with a study conducted in the Yucatan, Mexico (A. Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2005), suggests that the hostile subtropical environment of New Providence well may be responsible for checking the growth of the dog population. The study also suggests that until less than 20% of the females breed, there will continue to be a dog problem on the island.     

Characteristics of Owned Dogs on the Island of New Providence,The Bahamas

This study reports the findings from street interviews on owned dogs (N = 442) in New Providence, The Bahamas. Many households kept dogs outside, and roughly 43% of households allowed at least 1 dog to roam. Dogs kept inside most likely were considered a companion, whereas dogs used for security were kept outside. With 36.1% of the dog population neutered and 4.4 puppies per litter surviving to breeding age (6 months), the population continues to produce more dogs than are required just to maintain its numbers. Potcakes, the local mongrel, followed by pit bulls, were the most commonly kept dogs. Comparison with a study conducted in the Yucatan, Mexico (A. Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2005), suggests that the hostile subtropical environment of New Providence well may be responsible for checking the growth of the dog population. The study also suggests that until less than 20% of the females breed, there will continue to be a dog problem on the island.     

Digestibility of Duddingtonia flagrans chlamydospores in ruminants: in vitro and in vivo studies

Background

Rabies is a widespread disease in African domestic dogs and a serious public health problem in developing countries. Canine rabies became established in Africa during the 20th century, coinciding with ecologic changes that favored its emergence in canids. This paper reports the results of a cross-sectional study of dog ecology in the Antananarivo urban community in Madagascar. A questionnaire survey of 1541 households was conducted in Antananarivo from October 2007 to January 2008. The study addressed both owned and unowned dogs. Various aspects of dog ecology were determined, including size of dog population, relationship between dogs and humans, rabies vaccination.

Results

Dog ownership was common, with 79.6 to 94.1% (mean 88.9%) of households in the six arrondissements owning dogs. The mean owned dog to person ratio was 1 dog per 4.5 persons and differed between arrondissements (administrative districts), with ratios of 1:6.0 in the first arrondissement, 1:3.2 persons in the 2^nd, 1:4.8 in the 3^rd, 1:5.2 in the 4^th, 1:5.6 in the 5^th and 1:4.4 in the 6^th arrondissement. Overall, there were more male dogs (61.3%) and the male/female sex ratio was estimated to be 1.52; however, mature females were more likely than males to be unowned (OR: 1.93, CI 95%; 1.39Conclusion Antananarivo has a higher density of dogs than many other urban areas in Africa. The dog population is unrestricted and inadequately vaccinated against rabies. This analysis of the dog population will enable targeted planning of rabies control efforts.     

A cross-sectional study of factors associated with dog ownership in Tanzania

Background

Mass vaccination of owned domestic dogs is crucial for the control of rabies in sub-Saharan Africa. Knowledge of the proportion of households which own dogs, and of the factors associated with dog ownership, is important for the planning and implementation of rabies awareness and dog vaccination programmes, and for the promotion of responsible dog ownership. This paper reports the results of a cross-sectional study of dog ownership by households in urban and rural communities in the United Republic of Tanzania.

Results

Fourteen percent (202) of 1,471 households surveyed were identified as dog-owning, with an average of 2.4 dogs per dog-owning household. The percentage of dog-owning households was highest in inland rural areas (24%) and lowest in coastal urban communities (7%). The overall human:dog ratio was 14:1. Multivariable logistic regression revealed that households which owned cattle, sheep or goats were much more likely to own dogs than households with no livestock. Muslim households were less likely to own dogs than Christian households, although this effect of religion was not seen among livestock-owning households. Households were more likely to own a dog if the head of the household was male; if they owned a cat; or if they owned poultry. Dog ownership was also broadly associated with larger, wealthier households.

Conclusion

The human:dog ratios in Tanzania are similar to those reported elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa, although cultural and geographic variation is evident. Estimation of the number of owned dogs, and identification of household predictors of dog ownership, will enable targeted planning of rabies control efforts.

     

Domestic Dogs in Rural Communities around Protected Areas: Conservation Problem or Conflict Solution?

Although domestic dogs play many important roles in rural households, they can also be an important threat to the conservation of wild vertebrates due to predation, competition and transmission of infectious diseases. An increasing number of studies have addressed the impact of dogs on wildlife but have tended to ignore the motivations and attitudes of the humans who keep these dogs and how the function of dogs might influence dog-wildlife interactions. To determine whether the function of domestic dogs in rural communities influences their interactions with wildlife, we conducted surveys in rural areas surrounding protected lands in the Valdivian Temperate Forests of Chile. Sixty percent of farm animal owners reported the use of dogs as one of the primary means of protecting livestock from predators. The probability of dog–wild carnivore interactions was significantly associated with the raising of poultry. In contrast, dog–wild prey interactions were not associated with livestock presence but had a significant association with poor quality diet as observed in previous studies. Dog owners reported that they actively encouraged the dogs to chase off predators, accounting for 25–75% of the dog–wild carnivore interactions observed, depending on the predator species. Humans controlled the dog population by killing pups and unwanted individuals resulting in few additions to the dog population through breeding; the importation of predominantly male dogs from urban areas resulted in a sex ratios highly dominated by males. These results indicate that dog interactions with wildlife are related to the role of the dog in the household and are directly influenced by their owners. To avoid conflict with local communities in conservation areas, it is important to develop strategies for managing dogs that balance conservation needs with the roles that dogs play in these rural households.     

Knowledge of the Welfare of Nonhuman Animals and Prevalence of Dog Care Practices in New Providence,The Bahamas

Interviews with 509 adults in New Providence, The Bahamas, indicated that people have limited knowledge of dog care and the laws pertaining to nonhuman animal welfare. Interviews also indicated that many dogs received care limited only to food and water and—to a lesser extent—shelter. Potcakes (local mongrels) received the least health care; “breed” dogs, the most. Primary caregivers gave the impression that dogs were better cared for than did nonprimary caregivers. Although some educational messages must distinguish between those who do—and do not—live in dog-keeping households, others need not. For example, myths associated with neutering are more deeply entrenched in the general population than within members of dog-keeping households. However, all respondents had an inadequate knowledge of the law relating to dog care.     

Who let the dogs out? Exploring the spatial ecology of free‐roaming domestic dogs in western Kenya

The spatial ecology of free‐roaming dogs determines their role in the transmission of zoonoses. This study describes the geographic range of and identifies sites frequently visited by free‐roaming domestic dogs in western Kenya.Eight sites in Busia county, western Kenya, were selected. At each site, ten dog‐keeping households were recruited, a questionnaire was administered, and a GPS logger was fixed around the neck of one dog in each household. Loggers were programmed to capture the dog''s position every minute, for five consecutive days. Individual summaries of GPS recordings were produced, and the daily distance traveled was calculated. 50% and 95% utilization distribution isopleths were produced, and the area within these isopleths was extracted to estimate the size of the core and extended Home Ranges (HRs), respectively. Linear regression analyses were performed to identify factors associated with the movement parameters. The centroid points of the 10, 50, and 90% isopleths were reproduced, and the corresponding sites identified on the ground.Seventy‐three dogs were included in the final analyses. The median daily distance traveled was 13.5km, while the median core and extended HRs were 0.4 and 9.3 ha, respectively. Older dogs had a larger extended HR and traveled more daily, while the effect of sex on dog movement depended on their neutering status. Dogs spent most of their time at their household; other frequently visited sites included other household compounds, fields, and rubbish dumps. One of the centroids corresponded to a field located across the international Kenya–Uganda border, emphasizing the fluidity across the border in this ecosystem. Multiple dogs visited the same location, highlighting the heterogeneous contact networks between dogs, and between dogs and people.The field data presented are of value both in understanding domestic dog ecology and resource utilization, and in contextualizing infectious and parasitic disease transmission models.     

Preliminary observations on the characteristics of the owned dog population in Roseau, Dominica

This article reports findings from interviews with 93 heads of households (38.6% of all households) who owned 148 dogs in Roseau, the capital of The Commonwealth of Dominica. Mixed dogs, of no definable cross, were most common, followed by Rottweiler crosses. The median age of the dogs was 3 years, and 9.4% of the population was over 7 years. Respondents showed a definite preference for keeping male dogs (60%), and most animals were kept for protection (65%). Almost 30% of the dogs were allowed to roam. With 8.5% of the dogs neutered and 7 puppies per litter being born, the owned population produces more dogs than are required to maintain its size and so can provide recruits to the “stray” dog population. Comparisons with studies elsewhere in the Caribbean region (Fielding & Plumridge, 2005; Ortega-Pacheco et al. (in press) suggest that environmental effects rather than the level of care offered are primarily responsible for controlling the dog population.     

A Survey of Dog Populations in Urban and Rural Areas of Yucatan,Mexico

ABSTRACT

A survey in a major Mexican city (Merida) and three rural communities was conducted to generate information regarding the size and structure of the owned-dog populations and people's opinions about the dogs and how they took care of them. Household characteristics and dog population size, health and reproductive issues were compared between the two kinds of communities: urban and rural. A telephone survey was conducted in Merida city whereas personal interviews were used in the rural communities. Local veterinarians were also interviewed to evaluate their influence on the dog populations in Merida city. The ratio of people to dogs was 3.4:1 in the city, and 1.7:1 to 4.6:1 in the different rural communities. In general it was more common to find a dog-owning household in the city of Merida (72.8%) than in the rural areas (63.6%, 65.5% and 71.1%), and in the city more households had adequate fences to restrain dogs. Larger families were more likely to own a dog than small families. Households of medium socio-economic status had a significantly higher probability of owning a dog than households of low or high socio-economic status. Of the dogs in the city, 90.1% were vaccinated against rabies compared with 62.3% of the dogs in the rural communities. Most animals were intact; the frequency of neutering/spaying was 3.1% in Merida and 1.8% in the rural communities. Few private veterinary practitioners were involved in the control of dog overpopulation. It is concluded that dogs are popular pets both in urban and rural Yucatan. People's opinions about dogs and the level of supervision varied with socio-economic status, and people in the city provided better food, shelter and preventive medicine. The veterinary practitioners did little to promote the control of dog breeding or to reduce the relinquishing of unwanted dogs in the city. Better client education and the promotion of sterilization of pets at low cost would improve the situation.     

Factors Associated with the Seroprevalence of Leishmaniasis in Dogs Living around Atlantic Forest Fragments

Canine visceral leishmaniasis is an important zoonosis in Brazil. However, infection patterns are unknown in some scenarios such as rural settlements around Atlantic Forest fragments. Additionally, controversy remains over risk factors, and most identified patterns of infection in dogs have been found in urban areas. We conducted a cross-sectional epidemiological survey to assess the prevalence of leishmaniasis in dogs through three different serological tests, and interviews with owners to assess features of dogs and households around five Atlantic Forest remnants in southeastern Brazil. We used Generalized Linear Mixed Models and Chi-square tests to detect associations between prevalence and variables that might influence Leishmania infection, and a nearest neighbor dispersion analysis to assess clustering in the spatial distribution of seropositive dogs. Our findings showed an average prevalence of 20% (ranging from 10 to 32%) in dogs. Nearly 40% (ranging from 22 to 55%) of households had at least one seropositive dog. Some individual traits of dogs (height, sterilization, long fur, age class) were found to positively influence the prevalence, while some had negative influence (weight, body score, presence of ectoparasites). Environmental and management features (number of cats in the households, dogs with free-ranging behavior) also entered models as negative associations with seropositivity. Strong and consistent negative (protective) influences of the presence of chickens and pigs in dog seropositivity were detected. Spatial clustering of cases was detected in only one of the five study sites. The results showed that different risk factors than those found in urban areas may drive the prevalence of canine leishmaniasis in farm/forest interfaces, and that humans and wildlife risk infection in these areas. Domestic dog population limitation by gonadectomy, legal restriction of dog numbers per household and owner education are of the greatest importance for the control of visceral leishmaniasis in rural zones near forest fragments.     

Two Sides of the City: Dog-keeping Practices in Russian Urban Areas

This article examines dog–owner relations and dog ownership in Omsk, Russia. We describe typical dog-keeping practices and reveal how diverse urban environments can influence these practices. A two-stage survey was conducted in 2014 to determine the numbers and management of dogs owned. In total, some 1,583 households at the first stage of the research and 323 households at the second stage were interviewed face-to-face. About 23% of all households in Omsk owned dogs, but this proportion varied markedly for different parts of the city. In the city's single-story area, 71.5% of households had dogs, while in the multi-story area this was only 10.8%. Dog-keeping practices were different in these areas. Significant differences in these practices were shown for almost all aspects: the selection criteria, dog feeding, veterinary treatment, dog walking, the roles of dogs, and owners’ attitudes toward them. Owners living in the single-story area demonstrated a utilitarian or functional approach to their dogs—influencing the sex, size, and the breed of the animal. Dogs often lived outside the house; they were vaccinated and taken to the veterinarian less often than dogs from the multi-story area. The owners in the multi-story area described more affectionate feelings toward their dogs. This is reflected in both the choice and treatment of the animals. We observed a larger proportion of pedigree dogs, a larger proportion of female animals, more vaccinations, and the owners making a variety of purchases for their dogs.     

Demographic Data of a Population of Insured Swedish Dogs Measured in a Questionnaire Study

Dogs, in the age range 1–3 years old, were randomly selected from the largest animal insurance database in Sweden for inclusion in the study. The study was performed in 1997, and a total of 680 dog owners were selected for the study. A total of 461 dog owners completed the survey, at an overall response rate of 68%. Data was compared to a recent gallup performed on a sample of all dogs in Sweden. The demographic statistics of the insured dog population were in many aspects similar to the total dog population of Sweden. Typical for both insured dogs and the total population of dogs were a low proportion of neutered dogs, that many dogs were bought at an early age, that many dogs were in contact with a "breeder" when sold, and a similar profile of health status. However, "dog breeders" seemed to have their dogs insured to a higher extent than the general dog owner. It was concluded that as the populations were alike in many respects, it is reasonable to use the insurance database for epidemiological studies on diet and exercise in Swedish dogs.     

Dog Breeding in New Providence,The Bahamas,and Its Potential Impact on the Roaming Dog Population II: The Fate of Puppies

This article reports the first known study on the disposal of puppies in an Afro-Caribbean community. The study reported the fate of 2,427 puppies through 517 interviews with dog caregivers. The study reported that surviving puppies from “pure-bred” females were typically sold (60.1% of surviving puppies) whereas those from mongrel (potcakes) mothers were given away (48.4%). Pure-bred mothers produced the majority of surviving puppies (55.8%). Some caregivers failed to appreciate that the “stray dog problem” resulted from the inappropriate care of their dogs and disposal of puppies. Overall, the unstructured relinquishment (giving away) of puppies (22.7% of surviving puppies) could contribute to the roaming dog population unless they are cared for responsibly.     

Nonsurgical fertility control for managing free-roaming dog populations: A review of products and criteria for field applications

About 75% of dogs worldwide are free to roam and reproduce, thus creating locally overabundant populations. Problems caused by roaming dogs include diseases transmitted to livestock and humans, predation on livestock, attacks on humans, road traffic accidents, and nuisance behavior. Nonsurgical fertility control is increasingly advocated as more cost-effective than surgical sterilization to manage dog populations and their impact. The aims of this review were to 1) analyze trends in numbers of scientific publications on nonsurgical fertility control for dogs; 2) illustrate the spectrum of fertility inhibitors available for dogs; 3) examine how differences between confined and free-roaming dogs might affect the choice of fertility inhibitors to be used in dog population management; and 4) provide a framework of criteria to guide decisions regarding the use of nonsurgical fertility control for dog population management. The results showed that the 117 articles published between 1982 and 2011 focussed on long-term hormonal contraceptives, such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists, immunocontraceptives, and male chemical sterilants. The number of articles published biennially increased from one to five papers produced in the early 1980s to 10 to 20 in the past decade. Differences between confined dogs and free-roaming dogs include reproduction and survival as well as social expectations regarding the duration of infertility, the costs of sterilization, and the responsibilities for meeting these costs. These differences are likely to dictate which fertility inhibitors will be used for confined or free-roaming dogs. The criteria regarding the use of fertility control for dog population management, presented as a decision tree, covered social acceptance, animal welfare, effectiveness, legal compliance, feasibility, and sustainability. The review concluded that the main challenges for the future are evaluating the feasibility, effectiveness, sustainability, and effects of mass nonsurgical sterilization campaigns on dog population size and impact as well as integrating nonsurgical fertility control with disease vaccination and public education programs.     

Dog Ownership in the West Indies: A Case Study From the Bahamas

ABSTRACT

Results from several studies in The Bahamas, which included 511 interviews with residents and data on 776 dogs, are reported. The composition and characteristics of the dog population are described. The majority of dogs, both owned and unowned, are local mongrels called “potcakes.” The median age of the dog population is three years. Potcakes are given a lower level of health care than dogs considered to resemble a recognised breed. Many dogs have no place in the household and are able to roam. The dynamics of the owned and unowned dog populations are derived, and abandoned dogs are shown to sustain the free-roaming population. The free-roaming dog population breeds throughout the year but it has a breeding cycle longer than six months, which is probably caused by its ill health. Despite the nuisance caused by unowned dogs, residents are tolerant towards them, and over half the households feed dogs they do not own. The changes in pet ownership required to increase the welfare of dogs are discussed.     

Attitudes toward companion animals among Hispanic residents of a Texas border community

The researchers surveyed 206 residents of a Hispanic community on the Texas-Mexico border about their behaviors and attitudes toward companion animals. Selected members of the community administered a telephone survey to a systematic random sample of 206 individuals. The majority of participants believed that free-roaming dogs were a problem in their community, and nearly 81% responded that these dogs sometimes prevented them from walking outdoors. About 24% of dog guardians sometimes let their nonhuman animals roam free in the streets. Most study participants believed it was a good idea to sterilize both male and female dogs and cats, but only 11% of respondents' dogs and 27% of cats were sterilized. About 62% of households chained dogs outdoors; persons with an elementary-level education were 7 times more likely to chain their dogs than those who had completed some high school. The Hispanic population of the United States is growing rapidly; to guide officials charged with protecting animal welfare and the public health, it will become increasingly important to understand Hispanics' attitudes and behaviors toward companion animals.